Action Window: The first guideline was moved to the When to Use section.
Help Menu: The fifth guideline was changed from recommended to fundamental.
Keyboard: The functions and descriptions of the Shift+F8 and F8 keys were modified.
Notebook (Control): The graphic was modified.
Pointer: The first When to Use was changed from fundamental to recommended.
View Menu: The graphic was modified.
Windows Menu: A fundamental guideline was added.
Workplace: The second guideline recommended.

Value set control was added to Appendix C, "Comparison of 1989 and 1991 Rules and Recommendations" in topic C.0.
Information was moved and headings were changed in several of the bidirectional language usage sections of Appendix D, "Common User Access and National Language Support" in topic D.0.

Notices

Copy, modify, and print the documentation contained on the media, for use within your enterprise, provided you reproduce the copyright notice, all warning statements, and other required statements on each copy or partial copy.
Transfer the original unaltered copy of the documentation when you transfer the related IBM product (which may be either machines you own, or programs, if the program's license terms permit a transfer). You must, at the same time, destroy all other copies of the documentation.

Trademarks

Common User Access
CUA
IBM
Operating System/2
OS/2

Acknowledgments

Foreword

Object-Oriented

Interface

Design.

About This Book

How This Book is Organized

Part 1, "CUA Design Guide" describes principles, components, and techniques of user interface design in general, as applied to a variety of software products for a variety of operating environments. Although it describes the process of designing a product with a CUA interface in particular, Part 1, "CUA Design Guide" is not a "cookbook" for producing a product with a CUA interface; instead, it is more like a textbook, intended to expose designers to the concepts that they should consider when designing any kind of user interface.
Part 2, "CUA Reference" identifies the CUA interface components and lists all of the fundamental and recommended guidelines for designing and developing a product with a CUA interface for a programmable workstation. It provides an alphabetically arranged list of the interface components that are defined in the CUA interface. The graphical representations shown are examples only and are not intended to define how a component should appear in the interface for a particular product.

Part 1

Part 2

The Appendixes contain the following information:
- Design considerations for multimedia and touch input
- Design considerations for the use of color
- CUA interface National Language Support
- Help for documenting the CUA interface in product publications and online information.

Who Should Read This Book

Part 1, "CUA Design Guide" is primarily intended for software designers and user-interface designers, although programmers will want to read it to gain a general knowledge of the Common User Access user interface and the design process. You should be familiar with icons, windows, menus, and other components of graphical user interfaces, as well as with interaction techniques involving a pointing device, such as a mouse.

Part 2, "CUA Reference" is primarily intended for application programmers planning to incorporate CUA interface design into new or existing applications. Use this book together with interface-building tools to produce applications that follow the CUA guidelines. You should have a thorough understanding of one or more programming languages, concepts, and techniques.

Conventions Used in This Book

If a term is defined in the glossary (see "Glossary" in topic BACK_1), the term appears in italic type the first time or the most prominent time it is mentioned in the text.

If a term represents a term that is found in a user interface--for example, in a window, in a menu, as a label for an icon, and so on--the term appears in bold type each time it is mentioned in the text.

Related Publications

Systems Application Architecture Common User Access Basic Interface

Design

Guide

Systems Application Architecture Common User Access Basic Interface

Design

Guide

1991

Addenda

Systems Application Architecture Common User Access Guide to User Interface Design, (SC34-4289) and the Systems Application Architecture Common User Access Advanced Interface Design Reference, (SC34-4290)

The CUA Vision: Bringing the Future into Focus (G242-0215)

The CUA Vision: Bringing the Future into Focus (GV26-1003)

CUA Guide to Multimedia User Interface Design, (S41G-2922).

Please Tell Us What You Think!

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1.0 Part 1. CUA Design Guide

1.1 Chapter 1. User Interfaces and Object Orientation


A user interface is the set of techniques and mechanisms that a person uses to interact with an object. Any kind of object has a user interface, and an object's interface is developed according to a user's needs and reasons for using the object. A user interface can be a set of buttons, like those on a telephone or video recorder. In the case of a computer, a user interface can include a keyboard, a pointing device, and the items that appear on a display screen. The user interface is the means by which a user communicates with a computer and vice versa. Many types of user interfaces are available for computers, including:

° Command-line user interfaces, in which a user remembers commands and types them

° Menu-driven user interfaces, in which a user is provided with a hierarchically organized set of choices

° Graphical user interfaces, in which a user points to and interacts with visible elements of the interface by using a pointing device.

1.1.1 What Is the Common User Access User Interface?


The Common User Access user interface is a graphical user interface that incorporates elements of object orientation, an orientation in which a user's focus is on objects and in which the concept of applications is hidden. Objects and object orientation are discussed in more detail in "Object Orientation in the CUA User Interface" in topic 1.1.3. The CUA user interface is based on principles of user-interface design, on object-oriented relationships, and on field experience and user testing.

The CUA guidelines provide information about how the model on which a product is based should be conveyed to a user. The CUA guidelines also include specific details about designing and developing computer software and user interfaces. Products that adhere to the CUA guidelines and undergo usability testing should be comparatively easy to learn and use. As a result, users of products with a CUA user interface should find the products satisfying to use, efficient, and appropriate for the tasks that the users want to accomplish.

1.1.2 Who Will Use the CUA User Interface?

Although
this book is intended for product designers, the CUA user interface
itself is intended for a group of end users known as "knowledge
workers." This group includes the many people around the world who make
their living by working with information, which provides the basis for
the decisions they make. These people might work in offices or in
airplanes or anywhere they can have access to a computer.

However, the CUA user interface is not necessarily appropriate for every possible user of computers. For example, the CUA user interface might not be the most efficient interface for someone who performs a single, highly specialized task, such as the tasks in manufacturing process control or in retail sales. The CUA interface is most appropriate for users who perform a variety of information-related tasks.

1.1.3 Object Orientation in the CUA User Interface


Graphical user interfaces, including the CUA interface, are becoming more object-oriented. Object-oriented user interfaces allow for the development of a cohesive working environment in which each element, called an object, can interact with every other element. The objects that users require to perform their tasks and the objects used by the operating environment can work cooperatively in one seamless interface. That is, the boundaries that distinguish applications from operating systems are no longer apparent to users.

The most readily apparent feature of an object-oriented user interface is the pervasive focus on objects, as well as the principles applied to those objects, such as object classes, object hierarchies, and inheritance. These are discussed in the following sections.

1.1.4 Objects


In the real world, an object is an item that a person requires to perform work. For example, an accountant's objects might include a ledger and a calculator. An architect's objects might include blueprints, a T square, and a sharp pencil. In the CUA environment, an object is any visual component of a user interface that a user can work with as a unit, independent of other items, to perform a task. A spreadsheet, one cell in a spreadsheet, a bar chart, one bar in a bar chart, a report, a paragraph in a report, a database, one record in a database, and a printer are all objects. Each object can be represented by one or more graphic images, called icons, that a user can interact with, much as a user can interact
with objects in the real world.

However, an object need not always be represented by an icon, and not all  interaction is accomplished by way of icons. A user can interact with an object by opening a window that displays more information about the object and contains a variety of mechanisms for interacting with the object. A user can also manipulate an object within a window. Icons, windows, and interaction with objects are discussed in more detail in "Icons" in topic 1.4.3, "Windows" in topic 1.4.5, and "Interaction with Objects" in
topic 1.4.6.

1.1.4.1 Object Classes


The CUA environment includes three types, or classes, of objects:

° Container objects
° Data objects
° Device objects.

Each class of objects has a primary purpose that distinguishes it from the other classes, and all three types of objects can contain other objects.

1.1.4.1.1 Container Objects

A container object holds other objects. Its primary purpose is to provide a way for a user to group related objects for easy access and retrieval. An operating system typically provides a general-purpose container--for example, a folder--that can hold any type of object, including other containers.

Products often
provide product-specific containers that have special features to serve
the needs of the product's users. For example, a graphics product might
provide a portfolio container in which a user could store and sort
artwork according to subject matter or technique.

Figure 1. Container Objects. A folder object and a portfolio object are examples of container objects. Each provides a way for a user to group related objects for easy access and retrieval. The window to the right of the folder object labeled My Folder displays the folder's contents, including a portfolio object.
The window below the folder's window displays the contents of the portfolio object labeled My Portfolio. In this example, folder objects can contain portfolio objects, and portfolio objects can contain folder objects.

1.1.4.1.2 Data Objects

The primary purpose of a data object is to convey information, such as text or graphics, or audio or video information. An example of a data object might be a newsletter object, which could contain text objects and graphic objects. Because the primary purpose of each object (text, illustration, and newsletter as a whole) is to convey information of interest to readers, each is considered a data object. Figure 2 shows an example of a data object.




Figure 2. Data Object. A newsletter object is an example of a data object. It conveys information to a reader. It can also contain text objects and graphic objects, which are data objects as well.

1.1.4.1.3 Device Objects

A device object often represents a physical object in the real world. For example, a mouse object can represent a user's pointing device, and a modem object can represent a user's modem. Some device objects represent a logical object in a user's computer system rather than a physicalobject. For example, a wastebasket object can represent a logical object that disposes of a user's other objects, and an electronic mail out-basket can represent a logical object that delivers electronic mail to an intended recipient. The primary purpose of a device object is to provide a means of communication between a computer and another physical or logical object.

Some device objects can contain other objects. For example, a printer object can contain a queue of objects to be printed, and an electronic mail out-basket object can contain objects to be sent to the user of another computer system. Other device objects simply have settings that a user can configure. Device objects that contain other objects typically act on the contained objects. For example, a printer object will print the objects it contains, and an out-basket object will deliver objects to the intended recipient. Figure 3 shows two device objects.


 


Figure 3. Device Objects. A printer object represents a physical device, and an electronic mail out-basket represents a logical device.

1.1.4.2 Object Hierarchies and Inheritance

Objects can be grouped according to similarities in appearance and behavior. These groups can then be arranged into object hierarchies. One relationship that can be illustrated in a hierarchy is inheritance. An object that appears below another object in the hierarchy has all of the characteristics of the object or objects above it. The object is said to "inherit" those characteristics.


 


Figure 4. An Object Hierarchy Illustrating Inheritance. Each object that appears below another object in the hierarchy inherits all of the characteristics of the object or objects above it and can add new characteristics of its own.

In the hierarchy shown in Figure 4, a bar chart inherits all of the characteristics of a chart object, but none of the characteristics unique to a memo. However, a bar chart object and a memo object will have in common those characteristics that each inherited from a data object.

Other types of hierarchies are possible. For example, objects can be arranged in a containment hierarchy that illustrates which objects can contain which other objects. Figure 5 illustrates a possible containment hierarchy.


 


Figure 5. An Object Hierarchy Illustrating Containment. Each object that appears below another object in the hierarchy can be contained by the object or objects above it.

1.1.5 The Distinctions between Object-Oriented User Interfaces and Object-Oriented Programming

Object-oriented user interfaces share some concepts with object-oriented programming. However, the concepts are manifested differently. In an object-oriented user interface, the objects that a user works with do not necessarily correspond to the objects, or modules of code, that a programmer used to create the product. Inheritance and hierarchy in an object-oriented user interface are more subtle than in object-oriented programming. They are based on similarity in appearance and behavior, rather than on superclasses and subclasses of objects. Finally, an object-oriented interface incorporates the concept of containment, which has no parallel concept in object-oriented programming.

An important point for a designer to remember is that while object-oriented programming can facilitate the development of an object-oriented user interface, it is not a prerequisite. An object-oriented user interface can be developed with more traditional programming languages and tools.

1.1.6 Benefits of an Object-Oriented User Interface

Users sometimes are intimidated by the technical aspects of an operating system. An object-oriented user interface shields users by allowing them to interact with objects rather than with a distinct operating system and with separate applications that are often incompatible with one another.
A user can focus more closely on the task at hand without having to be so conscious of the tools involved. Object orientation reflects the way a person works in the real world. For example, someone writing a memo can concentrate on the message without paying much attention to the tools being used to accomplish the task--pencil and paper in the real world, a memo object in an object-oriented user interface. When working in an object-oriented environment, users can be completely unaware that they are using an editor application to do their writing.

Furthermore, a fully object-oriented user interface provides a seamless environment in which a user's interaction with objects is the same across tasks. For example, a user can copy, move, delete, and open all objects the same way, no matter what the user's current task is or which objects are involved. A user could copy a graphic and move it into a cell in a spreadsheet, then place the spreadsheet into a document. Then the user could send the entire resulting object to someone else by placing it into an electronic mail out-basket. Each object is completely compatible with every other object, and objects can be combined and separated freely.

Most commercially available graphical user interfaces do not provide fully object-oriented user environments. They still rely on applications--that is, separate programs--many of which are not compatible and thus pose barriers to certain types of user interaction. The CUA user interface encourages full object orientation in user interfaces.

1.2 Chapter 2. Models of a User Interface

The term model is used in this book to refer to a descriptive representation of a person's conceptual and operational understanding of something. Some models are explicit and are consciously designed. These models typically can be represented by a diagram or a textual description. Other models, called mental models, are developed unconsciously. People create a mental model by putting together sets of perceived rules and patterns in a way that explains a situation. A typical person cannot draw or describe his or her mental model. In many situations, a person is not aware that the mental model exists.

A mental model does not necessarily reflect a situation and its components accurately. Still, a mental model helps people predict what will happen next in a given situation, and it serves as a framework for analysis, understanding, and decision-making.

With respect to user interfaces, three models come into play:

° A user's conceptual model
° A programmer's model
° A designer's model.

A user's conceptual model is a mental model. A programmer's model and a designer's model are explicit, consciously designed models. Each model represents a different audience's perspective of a user interface. Figure 6 illustrates the three audiences and the factors that influence their perspectives.

Figure 6. Factors That Influence the Three Models of a User Interface. A user's conceptual model, a programmer's model, and a designer's model represent the perspectives of three different audiences for a software product. A user's conceptual model is influenced by the user's experiences in the real world, including experience with other computer systems. A programmer's model is influenced by the operating platform, the operating system, the shell, the tools, and the guidelines that are used to develop a product. A designer's model is influenced by the user's conceptual model, the programmer's model, and user interface design principles and guidelines.

The models for each audience are discussed in the following sections.

1.2.1 A User's Conceptual Model

A user's conceptual model is a mental model consisting of the set of relationships that a person perceives to exist among elements of any situation. A person develops a conceptual model through experience and then develops expectations based on the relationships in the model.

When confronted with a new situation, a person tries to interpret it by comparing it, often unconsciously, to some existing model. For example, if a computer user sees an object on a computer screen, and the object resembles a familiar object, say a telephone, the user transfers concepts from his or her existing model of telephones and makes guesses about how the computer's telephone object might work. Although this might seem to be a hit-or-miss approach to new situations, it is more efficient than building a new model from scratch, and people are satisfied when a new situation fits into their existing models.

However, if an existing model does not explain a new situation, and if people are unable to develop a new model, they become uncertain; they proceed hesitantly, and they can become frustrated, perhaps abandoning the new situation entirely because it is too unfamiliar. A user's conceptual model is somewhat resistant to change, but it can change over time as a user collects new evidence that helps a user refine or redefine the model.

To understand a user's conceptual model, a designer must understand a user's experiences (such as educational background and job training, as well as previous interaction with machines) and working environment (such as the type of hardware and system software in use). Also, a designer must understand what kinds of information a user needs and what functions a computer system should offer to help a user perform a task.

Unfortunately, a designer cannot simply ask all potential users of a product to describe or draw pictures of their conceptual models; most users are unaware that they have a conceptual model. Even users who are aware that they have expectations about a situation typically cannot provide the analytical insight that a designer needs. So a designer must gather information through techniques such as:

° Analysis of a users' tasks
° Surveys and interviews of actual or potential users
° Visits to users' work sites
° Feedback from users
° Usability testing.

Because each user's conceptual model is influenced by different experiences, no two users' conceptual models are exactly alike. Still, these techniques can help a designer compile a fairly complete picture of the conceptual models of a cross-section of users. A designer can then use this information, along with good design judgment and the CUA design principles and guidelines, to make decisions about how to design a product's user interface.

1.2.2 A Programmer's Model


A programmer's model represents a product or a computer system from the perspective of the person who writes the code that makes the product or system work. A programmer's model is often very different from both a user's model and a designer's model (described in the next section) because it necessarily includes a more thorough understanding of the computer hardware and supporting software that make a product or system run.

A programmer typically could draw a picture of a programmer's model because a programmer's model is more explicit than a user's conceptual model and is consciously created. The programmer's model concentrates primarily on the objects and relationships that the programmer uses to implement a product. For example, a programmer's model might include an object consisting of typed data fields in records in an indexed file. In a user's conceptual model, the same object would simply be an address book. In a designer's model, the concepts would be represented as a group of logically related objects (people's names, addresses, and telephone numbers) that make up an address book object. A programmer requires a level of understanding different from the level required by users.
Therefore, although the elements of a programmer's model are vital to the development of a product, a designer should take care to mask the technical details, hiding them from a user without impairing a product's function.

1.2.3 A Designer's Model

A user-interface designer is like an architect. Just as an architect must understand the perspective of the person who is going to live in a house, as well as the perspective of the person who is going to build the house, a user-interface designer must understand the perspectives of the end user and the programmer.

A designer's model influences and is influenced by both the user's conceptual model and the programmer's model. There is no direct relationship between the user's conceptual model and the programmer's model. Figure 7 shows how the three models are related.

Figure 7. The Relationship among the Models of User Interfaces. A designer's model influences and is influenced by both the user's conceptual model and the programmer's model. No direct relationship exists between the user's conceptual model and the programmer's model.

The three primary elements of a designer's model are:

° Object relationships (the objects in the interface and their behaviors)
° Visual representations (the "look" of the interface)
° Interaction techniques and mechanisms (the "feel" of the interface).

Figure 8 illustrates the parts of a designer's model and shows the relationships among the parts.

Figure 8. The Designer's Model Represented as an Iceberg. A designer's model includes object relationships, visual representations, and interaction techniques and mechanisms. Although the visual representations and interaction techniques are the most visible part of a user interface, the object relationships, which are
based on a user's conceptual model, form the bulk of the interface.

Although the visual representations and interaction techniques and mechanisms are the most obvious elements of a user interface, the object representations make the most significant contribution to a product's usability.

1.2.3.1 Object Relationships

Object relationships are the most important part of a designer's model, and a designer should spend a considerable amount of effort defining them. At this stage of product development, a designer determines what objects a user requires, what the relationships are among the objects, and what properties and behaviors the objects should have. For example, if a designer is developing a model of a product for a car dealership, the designer might determine that a user--in this case a car salesperson--needs a car object and a customer object. The user might
also need a worksheet object, in which information from both the car object and customer object can be combined. Finally, the user might need one or more container objects to contain the other objects.

When a designer chooses the objects and their properties, behaviors, and relationships carefully, and accurately matches them to the relationships in a user's existing conceptual model, the visual representations and interaction techniques follow naturally.


 


Figure 9. Object Relationships. A designer must decide what objects a user requires, what the relationships are among the objects, and what properties and behaviors the objects should possess.

1.2.3.2 Visual Representations

A designer's model also addresses the appearance of objects so that a product's objects are visually consistent with one another as well as with other objects in the operating environment. The two aspects to each visual representation in a user interface are the functional aspect and the aesthetic aspect. In designing the functional aspect of a visual representation, a designer is concerned with usability and with how well the visual representation conveys the purpose of the object being represented. In designing the aesthetic aspect of a visual
representation, a designer is concerned with whether the representation is visually pleasing. A designer considers factors such as the shape, size, and color of the visual representation.

Typically, a designer's model provides a framework for both aspects of the visual representations. The framework includes ways to visually indicate to a user what the purpose or state of an object is, as well as ways to indicate similarity among objects. For a car dealership product, a designer might decide that all cars with prospective buyers should be identified by a similar symbol.

Visual specifications assist a designer in maintaining visual consistency, and they provide a foundation on which the designer can build. They also allow a designer leeway in determining which representations are most appropriate for a particular product.

Figure 10. Visual Representations. A designer must develop specifications for the visual elements of an interface to ensure consistency. The specifications should address the functional aspects of visual representations, such as usability and purpose, as well as the aesthetic aspects, such as shape, size, and color.

1.2.3.3 Interaction Techniques and Mechanisms

Finally, a designer's model addresses a user's techniques for interaction with objects. A typical model includes more than one technique and more than one mechanism for interaction so that users can choose the technique and mechanism that best suits their tasks, their level of skill, and their preferred style of interaction.

A designer's model specifies a pattern of interaction in which users interact with similar objects in similar ways and in ways that seem natural to users. Again, consistency should be a designer's goal when developing this part of the designer's model. Toward that end, the CUA interface provides substantial guidance for interaction techniques and mechanisms. When developing a product with a CUA user interface, a designer does not need to develop a complete model of interaction. Instead, a designer's task is to choose from the CUA designer's model (see Chapter 5, "The CUA Designer's Model--A Summary" in topic 1.5) those interaction techniques that are most appropriate for a particular product.

In a car dealership product, for example, a designer might determine that a salesperson should be able to place information into a worksheet object in any of several ways. The salesperson could place a car object on top of the worksheet object, thereby transferring information about the car to the worksheet. Or the salesperson could type information directly into the worksheet object. Finally, the salesperson could select portions of information from the car object and copy it to the worksheet object.

Figure 11. Interaction Techniques and Mechanisms. A designer must specify which techniques yield which results and must ensure that similar interactions yield similar results.

1.2.4 Accommodating the Differences between a User's Conceptual Model and a Designer's Model

Ideally, a designer's model is equivalent to a user's conceptual model, and a product works the way each user expects it to work. However, various factors can lead to a disparity between a user's conceptual model and a designer's model. For example:

° Not all users have the same conceptual models.

° Implementation constraints can restrict the function of a product to something less than a user expects.

° A computer product can provide useful features that do not have corresponding components in the real world or in a user's area of expertise, and therefore do not already exist in a user's conceptual model.

When a designer's model does not exactly match a user's conceptual model, the user often feels as if he or she is viewing a product through a haze, not quite seeing or understanding the product. Some components of the product look and behave as the user expects, while others seem somewhat different or even foreign. To dispel the haze, a designer should expose a user to the features of a product in a way that helps shape the user's conceptual model to incorporate the actual designer's model. Then the two become equivalent.

Consistency and the use of metaphors are helpful techniques for shaping a user's conceptual model. When a new feature is consistent with a product's other features, a user can predict at least some of the results of using the new feature and can accept the new feature more readily. Likewise, when a new feature is developed around a metaphor for something that exists in a user's conceptual model, a user can make guesses about the new feature by drawing analogies from the familiar concept. The user can then extend the existing conceptual model to incorporate the new feature. Electronic mail provides an example.

Although most people understand how to mail a letter by using a postal or courier service, few immediately understand how to send information by pressing a key on a keyboard or by placing a computer object on top of another computer object (for example, placing a document object on top of an out-basket object). By designing this type of information transfer around a mail metaphor, a designer encourages a user to draw on an existing conceptual model that describes and explains methods for getting information from one place to another. Furthermore, if a designer has specified an interaction technique that is consistent with other interaction techniques that a user is familiar with, a user will be able to extend a conceptual model of mail to include electronic mail. For example, if a user knows how to mail a real-world document by placing it into the office out-basket, the user can easily learn to mail a document object by placing it into an out-basket object on a computer.

Figure 12. Metaphor. Electronic mail relies on a mail metaphor to help users understand the underlying concept of electronic transfer of information. To mail document objects, users place them into an out-basket object, just as users place real-world documents into real-world out-baskets.

A designer's model must also be flexible enough to accommodate growing sophistication in users. As users become more proficient in using a product, they might find that they do not like certain aspects of the interface, or they might realize that they want or need functions that they had not thought of before. A successful designer anticipates a user's progress and provides mechanisms that are robust enough to stretch as novice users become expert users. For example, when working with a printer object, a typical user wants information about which objects are in the printer's queue, as well as the orientation and number of copies the printer will produce. This information should be readily available.
However, a more sophisticated user might want information about the printer's connections, baud rate, and communication protocol. This information should also be available, but it should not get in the way of the information needed by a typical user.

By layering information, a designer can keep a product's interface free of clutter and can avoid intimidating novice users while still meeting the needs of expert users. Chapters 3 and 4 provide information about the design principles and interface components that enable designers to create products that serve users' needs.

1.2.5 Accommodating the Programmer's Model in the Designer's Model

Ideally, a designer should create a model appropriate for users, and a programmer should write programming code that supports the designer's entire model. However, a designer must sometimes make concessions to the restrictions of a programming environment. For example, in a product that offers an electronic mail feature, a designer might specify that a user should receive some kind of immediate notification when mail reaches its intended recipient. But if the network that the mail travels on is subject to unpredictable delays, the designer might have to settle for a notification that arrives as soon as the network allows, rather than an immediate notification. The designer might also have to add a feature
that lets a user know where a piece of mail is while in route.

When accommodating a programmer's model in a designer's model, a designer should be certain to shield users from complex details of a product's implementation. As shown in Figure 7 in topic 1.2.3, there should be no direct relationship between a programmer's model and a user's conceptual model. Any aspect of a programmer's model that must be exposed to a user must first be filtered through the designer's model. For example, a typical user expects that the information displayed in a window is up to date. The user's expectation should be reflected in the designer's model. However, a programmer cannot always ensure that displayed information is up to date; perhaps a network delay interferes. To bridge the gap between a user's expectations and what a programmer can deliver, a designer's model can include a way for a user to manually refresh the display of information.

Just as an architect must know the strengths and weaknesses of building materials and the skills of the builders contracted to construct a house, a designer must be aware of the capabilities and limitations of the programming environment, and the skills of the programmers who will implement the design.

1.3 Chapter 3. Goals and Design Principles of the CUA User Interface

The primary goal of the CUA user interface is to help a user to transfer knowledge across products. If a user learns to use one product that has a CUA interface, the user can quickly learn to use any other product that has a CUA interface. Additional goals of the CUA user interface are to:

° Increase a user's productivity
° Increase a user's satisfaction with a product
° Reduce a user's error rate.

The CUA user interface achieves these goals by adhering to the design principles discussed in this chapter. The design principles are based on principles of human behavior, field experience, and results of usability testing.

Occasionally a designer must choose between two design principles if both pertain to a particular aspect of the user interface. Sometimes factors outside a designer's control can lead a designer to favor one principle at the expense of another. For example, cost, performance, and usability concerns sometimes conflict. A designer must balance them according to their effect on a user and a user's tasks. Above all, a designer must keep a user in mind when creating a user interface.

The design principles are grouped according to these categories:

° Placing a user in control of the user interface
° Reducing a user's memory load
° Making the user interface consistent.

If a designer conscientiously combines these design principles with knowledge of a product's intended users and with usability testing, the resulting product should be easy to learn and easy to use.

1.3.1 Design Principles That Place a User in Control


A user should always be able to communicate with a computer and should never feel that the computer is in control. Whenever possible, a designer should avoid program-driven sequences that prompt a user through fixed steps and directive messages. Program-driven interaction is like riding a train: a user must go where the program goes, according to its schedule. A designer should aim for user-driven interaction, which is like driving a car: a user goes where the user wants, according to the user's schedule. A product should allow a user alternative courses of action and should not limit a user's capabilities by imposing a designer's or programmer's preconceived notions of the "correct" sequence for accomplishing a task.

In general, a designer should approach product design with a "no user errors" philosophy. That is, a product should never make users feel that they are in the wrong--rather, users should feel that any shortcomings are in the product, not in themselves.

1.3.1.2 Displaying Descriptive and Helpful Messages

Chances are that at some point a user will interact with a product in a way that the product's designer did not anticipate. When that happens, the product should indicate to the user that it cannot interpret the user's action. Typically a product would display some kind of message, although in some situations an audible cue or a graphical cue would suffice.

Because a situation in which a message is displayed is often a situation in which a user needs the most support, messages should be clear and concise and should provide mechanisms for user interaction. A message should describe the situation objectively, without placing blame, and should help a user correct the situation. For example, if a user inserts a diskette that has not been formatted, and the user tries to save an object to that diskette, the product should display a message that tells the user that the diskette has not been formatted. The message should include mechanisms that allow the user to format the diskette and save the
object without having to leave the message window. The message should also include mechanisms that allow the user to take other courses of action. Figure 14 shows an example of an appropriate message.

 


Figure 14. Descriptive Message. The message describes the situation without placing blame on the user, and the message provides a way for the user to change the situation without leaving the message window.

For additional information about messages, see "Messages" in topic 1.4.7.1.

1.3.1.1 Using Modes Judiciously

A mode is a state of a product in which only certain actions are available to a user. That is, modes restrict a user's options. However, modes can be useful in some situations. For example, they can extend the capabilities of input devices by allowing several actions to be accomplished with the same technique, key, button, and so forth. Modes can also help an expert user perform a series of actions very quickly.

A mode limits a product's response to a user's actions. For example, if a user were typing a report using a product that has a typing mode and a line-drawing mode, the user would have to leave the typing mode to draw lines around a paragraph. Because typing would be an action unavailable in the line-drawing mode, the user would have to switch modes again to continue typing the report.

Modes can be useful in directing a user's interaction with a product. However, designers have historically overused modes without regard for how modes affect users. Users can feel powerless when a mode restricts their actions.

One drawback of modes is that the same action can produce a different result, or no result, in a different mode. For example, in a typical typing mode, a letter appears when a user presses a character key. In a line-drawing mode, perhaps only the cursor-movement keys have any effect; pressing a character key might produce no result.

Another drawback to modes is that users tend to forget which mode they are in unless a product clearly indicates the current mode. A user can be puzzled when an action leads to an unintended result. For example, pressing the right arrow key in a typing mode typically moves the cursor to the right. In a line-drawing mode, perhaps the right arrow key extends a horizontal line by some increment. If a user presses the right arrow key intending to edit some text, and instead draws a longer line, the user can be surprised, confused, or even exasperated.

To alleviate some of the problems associated with modes, a designer should try to use only those modes that require an ongoing user action, such as pressing a mouse button or a keyboard key, to maintain the mode. Also, a designer should specify some kind of mode indicator. For example, a pointer or cursor could have one visual representation when the user is in a text-editing mode and another when the user is in a line-drawing mode. Figure 13 shows examples of pointers used as mode indicators.

Figure 13. Mode Indicators. When a user is in text editing mode, for example, the pointer can change to an I-beam pointer to indicate the mode. When the user changes to line-drawing mode, the pointer can change to a cross-hair pointer.

If a designer finds it necessary to use a mode for a particular part of a product, the designer should keep the scope of the mode narrow and should allow a user to continue to interact with other parts of the product while the mode is in effect. For example, if a product requires more information from a user and displays a message window to elicit the information, the user should still be able to scroll the underlying window and interact with other parts of the window not affected by the lack of information. The user should also be able to interact with other objects.

In general, a designer should use modes with caution and should make them obvious and easy to get out of.

1.3.1.3 Providing Immediate Actions, Feedback, and Reversible Actions

The results of a user's actions should be obvious immediately. Immediate feedback allows a user to assess whether the results were as expected. If the results are not as expected, the user can choose an alternative action right away. For example, when a user selects a choice to change the font of some selected text, the appearance of the selected text should change immediately. The user can then decide if the resulting effect is desirable and can select another choice if it is not.

If the results of a user's actions cannot be made obvious immediately--for example, if a network delay interferes--a product should still provide some kind of feedback. For example, the product should indicate to the user that the action is being processed. However, a designer should make sure that a product's feedback does not interrupt a user's work.

The results of a user's actions should also be reversible. By providing reversible actions, a designer allows a user to learn by exploring, to try an action to see the result, and to undo the action if the result is not what was expected or desired. For example, if a user types a word and then decides a different word would be better, the user can press the Backspace key to undo the original typing. Likewise, a user should be able to redo any action that has been undone. A user feels more comfortable with an interface in which an action does not cause irreversible consequences.

If an action cannot be made reversible, a product should inform a user and should give the user an opportunity to select some other action. A product might display a message that tells what the outcome of a user's action will be and that indicates alternative actions for the user to select from. For example, if a user attempts to erase a diskette, the product should display a message that tells the user that if the action continues, the user will no longer be able to retrieve the information on the diskette. The message should also indicate alternative actions that the user can take, such as stopping the action or replacing the diskette in question with another diskette.

A designer is responsible for determining which actions can be undone and which cannot, but the designer should always keep users' needs in mind and should err on the side of more reversible actions rather than fewer reversible actions. A designer also determines how many actions in a series of actions can be undone.

1.3.1.4 Accommodating Users with Different Levels of Skill

Much of user interface design is focused on novice or casual users. However, many products offer features for more expert users as well. When designing a user interface, a designer should provide a way for a user to proceed at a comfortable pace, learning as much as necessary to accomplish the task at hand. A designer should also provide a way for a user to go beyond the basic level of knowledge required for frequently used features. A product should encourage exploration so that, as a user's expertise increases, the user is able to discover and use the product's more advanced features.

For example, a product might initially display simplified menus containing only those choices that a novice or casual user would use. However, the product could also contain a mechanism that allows experienced or expert users to display complete menus of all of the product's choices.

A novice or casual user requires different kinds of support than those required by a frequent or expert user. To accommodate a novice or casual user, a designer should rely heavily on visual cues and should avoid making a user type extensively or remember details. Another technique is to provide abbreviated menus and simplified windows. To accommodate a frequent or expert user, a designer can provide hidden mechanisms, such as shortcut keys, and condensed sequences of steps. A designer can also provide a way to remove some visual cues. For example, an expert user should be able to turn off the display of certain kinds of information that he or she does not require.

Users at any level of knowledge and experience can benefit from help information that describes a product's objects, choices, and interaction techniques, and offers a user assistance in completing a task. A novice or casual user might require extensive help information about each component of a product's interface, while a frequent or expert user might require only a brief description.

In general, an interface should be flexible enough to accommodate a full range of users, but a designer should make sure that the interface serves the needs of the primary users.

1.3.1.5 Making the User Interface Transparent

A user interface provides tools that help a user accomplish a task; therefore, an interface should focus a user's attention on the task or end product. Just as a chef is only incidentally interested in the tools of the cooking trade--pots, pans, and ovens--and prefers to concentrate on the finished meal, a user is only incidentally interested in the tools provided by a user interface--menus, pointers, keyboards, icons, and windows. A user prefers to concentrate on conveying ideas, calculating a return on investment, or replenishing an inventory, for example, and a designer should make sure that the tools provided by a user interface do not get in the user's way. A good user interface requires little conscious thought on a user's part.

1.3.1.6 Allowing a User to Customize the User Interface

Because they have varying backgrounds, interests, motivations, and experiences, no two users are exactly alike. To accommodate individual differences, a designer should create a flexible interface that each user can customize according to personal preference. A user should be able to customize the volume and duration of sounds, the intensity and hue of colors, the arrangement of choices in menus, the sequence of steps in a process, and any other aspect of the user interface. A designer should never underestimate a user's creativity or desire for imprinting personal style on a computer.

A designer should also recognize that different users have different physical characteristics and work in diverse environments. One user might want to increase the volume of audible cues on a system to compensate for hearing loss or for a noisy work environment. Another user might want to enlarge the visual representations of the interface's components to compensate for impaired vision or inadequate lighting. Allowing a user to completely customize a user interface can lead to higher productivity and higher user satisfaction. However, a designer should provide defaults that are satisfactory to most users and that a user can revert to.

1.3.2 Design Principles That Reduce a User's Memory Load

A user should never have to rely on memory for something a product can "remember." Because people are better at recognition than at recall, a product should present alternatives and let a user choose from among them. For example, a product could provide lists of items, such as choices in a menu. A user can recognize choices in a menu without having to recall commands or their syntax.

Figure 15. Recall versus Recognition. The window on the left offers few cues to a user, who must remember a set of commands and syntax. The window on the right presents a user with a menu, a list of items that a user can recognize and point to.

A product should also provide reminders to help a user keep track of the task at hand. For example, a product could provide visual cues, such as highlighting or progress indicators, or textual cues, such as status messages. Highlighting can remind a user that an object is selected, and a progress indicator can remind a user that a process is under way.

Another way to avoid overloading a user's memory is to provide default settings and to save previously selected settings. The window in which the settings are saved can also remind a user about which settings are in effect. For example, a user might want to change the colors that appear on a screen. After experimenting with various colors, the user might settle on a particular combination and save those settings. At a later date, however, the user might decide to revert to the original colors. By providing a default setting for screen colors, the product relieves the user of the responsibility for remembering the original colors.

1.3.2.1 Defining Meaningful and Concise Object Classes

In both the real world and in an object-oriented user interface, certain objects are better suited to certain tasks. For example, a telephone serves a person's needs for oral communication better than a typewriter does, while a person would be hard pressed to write a report with a telephone. When designing objects for an object-oriented user interface, a designer should consider the tasks a user will want to accomplish and then should ensure that the characteristics of the objects support the user's tasks.

A designer should clearly define the properties of each object and should establish a hierarchy of object classes based on these properties. The objects should be designed so that a user can easily recognize members of a class and can understand what distinguishes one class of objects from another. The distinctions among classes should be meaningful to a user and should not be based on underlying programming distinctions or requirements. For example, a product might contain a chart object and a parts catalog object. When a user works with a chart object, the user develops a body of knowledge about that object and comes to expect that other chart objects share certain characteristics and behave similarly. Likewise, a user develops a different set of expectations about a parts catalog object because it behaves differently from a chart object. From a
user's perspective, these two objects have different purposes--that is, they belong to different object classes--even though they share some behaviors, such as opening and closing. A user does not care, and does not need to know, that to a programmer or a designer both objects are members of the data object class.

An object hierarchy should be concise. So should the visual representations of the objects in the hierarchy. Typically, each object in a class of objects is represented by the same type of icon. The individual objects are distinguished by different icon labels, which indicate the name of each object. If a user interface is cluttered with too many types of objects or too many types of icons, a user can become overwhelmed. To keep a user focused on the right objects, a designer should keep the number of object classes to a minimum while still allowing a user to accomplish a task without undue effort. If a product seems to
require a new object class, a designer should first consider modifying an existing class. Likewise, a designer should consider modifying existing icons to represent new object classes. However, a designer should be sure that the visual distinctions among icons are obvious enough for a user to discern them readily. Reuse of an existing class allows a user to draw on previous knowledge of the class and decreases learning time.

1.3.2.2 Making Objects Concrete and Recognizable

When a computer object resembles a real-world object in appearance or behavior, or both, a user can transfer knowledge about the real-world object to the computer environment. By including familiar objects in a product, a designer can help users learn to use the product more quickly.

The visible representation of computer objects should be easily recognizable, and a computer object should resemble its real-world counterpart when possible. For example, in a car dealership product, an object that represents the general information about a car should resemble the general information found on the car's window sticker. Figure 16 shows an example of a recognizable object.

 

Figure 16. Concrete, Recognizable Objects. The car object's icon resembles a real car, and the information in the window resembles the information found on the sticker on a car window.

When an object represents a more abstract notion that does not have a real-world counterpart, the representation of the object should still help a user visualize and remember relationships.

1.3.3 Design Principles That Contribute to Consistency

Consistency helps a user transfer knowledge from one product to another and helps a user predict how something new will work. To create a consistent user interface, a designer should develop paradigms that provide for identical implementation of common functions throughout a product. For example, the CUA guidelines specify that a user should be able to use the same technique for editing text, regardless of where the text appears.

For any single design decision, a designer must consider whether being consistent with respect to one component of an interface can affect the consistency of other components. Some components of a user interface might be consistent in shape, location, or color. Others might be consistent in interaction techniques. A designer should make sure that components are consistent in the ways that a user would expect.

A designer must also remember that consistency is a means to an end--ease of learning and reduction of errors--rather than an end itself. Sometimes it is impractical or impossible to be completely consistent. In that case, a designer must make consistency compromises based on knowledge of a user's conceptual model and should be consistent in whichever way seems more natural to a user.

1.3.3.1 Sustaining the Context of a User's Task

Users can become confused if everything in front of them changes continuously, without apparent cause, while they work. To reassure a user and give a user a sense of continuity, a product should provide cues that help a user relate an effect to its cause.

A product should also maintain useful points of reference while a user works on a task. For example, when a user adds objects to a folder, the appearance of the folder's window should remain the same while the appearance of the window's contents changes.

Figure 17. Sustaining the Context of a User's Task. The window on the left shows that the container contains two objects. When a user adds more objects to the container, the appearance of the window remains the same while the appearance of the window's contents changes.

Additionally, a user should be able to complete a step or a series of related steps without having to alternate between input devices. For example, a user should not have to use a pointing device to scroll text while editing that text from the keyboard. The text should scroll automatically when the cursor reaches the boundary of the area the user is working in, and the keyboard should have its own scrolling mechanisms, such as keys that move text up or down in the window, either a line at a time or a screenful at a time.

Finally, a user should be able to predict the result of an action. Two ways in which a designer can help a user predict a result are to provide consistent responses to actions and to provide actions appropriate to a user's tasks. A designer determines appropriate actions and responses by using task analysis and by relying on metaphors when suitable metaphors can be found. Also, by labeling actions with appropriate terms, a designer helps a user develop expectations about the outcome of those actions.

1.3.3.2 Maintaining Continuity within and among Products

A designer should not discount a user's experiences with other user interfaces, such as those provided in prior versions of a product, or those generally accepted as industry standards. Instead, a new product or a new version of an existing product should build on a user's knowledge. Therefore, a designer should be cautious in changing the behavior of an object from one version of a product to the next. A designer must test a new behavior to make sure that its benefits outweigh the drawbacks of forcing a user to relearn the object's behavior. One way to accommodate both new users and experienced users is to provide both the old and the new behavior for an object and let the users choose which to use.

1.3.3.3 Creating Aesthetic Appeal

The appearance of a product's interface can significantly affect a user's attitude toward the interface. Inconsistent design and haphazard placement of objects can confuse a user and can contribute to a user's dissatisfaction with a product.

When designing the appearance of a user interface, a designer should adhere to generally accepted practices for information presentation. By skillfully using white space, color, proximity, overlap, size and shape differences, and other components of visual communication, a designer can make an interface more efficient and effective and can increase a user's satisfaction with a product.

1.3.3.4 Using Visual Metaphors

To draw on a user's existing conceptual model, a designer should include elements that are familiar to a user. One way a designer can make an interface seem familiar is to use metaphors. For example, a designer could use a folder icon, which is a visual metaphor for a manila folder, an object familiar to a user. The folder is also a metaphor for the familiar concept of storage. In a computer environment, storage might be accomplished differently from what a user is accustomed to, but the metaphoric representations help a user draw on existing knowledge. Metaphors also help set the stage for expanding a user's conceptual model to accommodate the additional capabilities provided by the computer.

 

Figure 18. A Visual Metaphor for Storage. Because users have conceptual knowledge of folders, when they see a folder icon, they can understand that it represents storage.

1.4 Chapter 4. Key Components of the CUA User Interface


This chapter describes many of the key components of the CUA user interface. A designer can use these components when developing a product for a CUA environment. While many of these components appear in other kinds of user interfaces, the following descriptions refer specifically to the CUA implementation of these components.

1.4.1 Workplace


The workplace is the container that holds all objects in the CUA interface. It fills the entire screen and serves as a background for a user's work. Any object that appears directly on the background of the workplace is represented by an icon.

 

Figure 19. Workplace. The workplace is the container that holds all other objects. It fills the entire screen.

1.4.2 Folders and Work Areas


A folder is a general-purpose container in which a user can organize objects in whatever way the user sees fit. A work area is a more specialized type of container in which a user can organize objects according to the task or tasks the user wants to perform. Both types of containers can be provided by an operating system, and a product can provide product-specific containers based on these two types of containers. The visual representations of these containers can be  tailored to fit the tasks for which a product will be used.

 

Figure 20. Folder and Work Area. A folder is a general-purpose container, and a work area is a container specialized for a user's tasks.

1.4.3 Icons


In the CUA interface, an icon is a small graphic image that represents an object. Strictly speaking, an icon is simply one view of an object (see "Views" in topic 1.4.5.1); however, to be consistent with a user's conceptual model, a designer should design a product in a way that encourages a user to think of an icon as the object itself.

An icon should convey information about its corresponding object, and its appearance can change when something about its object changes. For example, the icon for a printer can change to indicate that the printer has run out of paper.

An icon doesn't have to be a static image. It can be an animated image or even a video image. Figure 21 shows examples of icons.

 

Figure 21. Icons. Icons are graphic images that represent objects. They can change to indicate a change in the objects they represent. The icon on the left represents a printer. The icon on the right indicates that the printer has run out of paper.

1.4.4 Pointers and Cursors

Pointers and cursors are visual cues that indicate where a user's next  interaction with the user interface will take place. They provide a way  for a user to select and interact with things that appear on the  workplace.

1.4.4.1 The Pointer

Typically only one pointer appears on the workplace at a time, and it is associated with a user's pointing device, such as a mouse, trackball, or joystick. When a user moves the pointing device, the pointer moves correspondingly, and when a user presses a button on the pointing device, the object that the pointer is on is affected.

The pointing device used most often in a CUA environment is a two-button mouse. One of the two mouse buttons is called the selection button (see "Selection" in topic 1.4.6.4). The other mouse button is called the manipulation button, and it is used for direct manipulation (see "Interaction with Objects" in topic 1.4.6). A user can choose either the left or right mouse button for either function, selection or manipulation. If a three-button mouse is used, the third button is called the menu button.

The CUA pointer is usually shaped like an arrow. However, the shape of the pointer can change to indicate what kinds of actions are possible. For example, the pointer is shaped like an I-beam when it is over text that can be edited or over an area into which text can be placed. Products can provide product-specific pointers that serve the special needs of their audiences. For example, a graphics product might provide a special pointer to help a user draw lines accurately. However, before providing a new pointer, a designer should first consider modifying an existing pointer so that a user can transfer knowledge about the existing pointer rather than having to learn about a new one.

Figure 22. Pointers. The pointer is usually shaped like an arrow, but it changes to an I-beam when it is on text that can be edited or on an area into which text can be placed. The pointer can change to other shapes as well, depending on the mode the user is in.

1.4.4.2 The Cursor

Typically only one cursor appears on the workplace at a time, and it is associated with a user's keyboard. When a user presses a key, information is transmitted to the operating system, and if appropriate, something appears or occurs at the cursor's position.

The CUA cursors are the selection cursor and the text cursor. The selection cursor is used to indicate which items a user can interact with from the keyboard. For example, a selection cursor can indicate which items can be selected or which items can display a pop-up menu (see "Pop-up Menus" in topic 1.4.6.2). In some scopes of selection (see "Scopeof Selection" in topic 1.4.6.4.1) the selection cursor just indicates the cursor's position. In other scopes of selection, the selection cursor also automatically selects the item it is on.

Figure 23. Selection Cursor. The selection cursor is typically a bar of color, a box with a dotted outline, or an area that appears to be pressed in relation to the surrounding window area.

The text cursor is used to type text. When a user is in insert mode--that is, when characters a user types are added to the existing characters--the text cursor appears as a vertical line. When a user is in replace mode--that is, when characters a user types replace existing characters--the text cursor can change in appearance. For example, the cursor can become a vertical bar of color surrounding the character that will be replaced.

Figure 24. Text Cursors. The text cursor is a vertical line when a product is in insert mode. It is a vertical bar of color when a product is in replace mode.

1.4.4.2.1 Cursor Movement

A user can move the cursor by pressing a cursor movement key. Cursor  movement keys include the arrow keys (labeled _, _ÿ, ", and ) and the  Home, End, Page Up, and Page Down keys. A user can also move the cursor  by pressing and releasing a button on a mouse or other pointing device.  When a user presses the selection button on a mouse, the cursor moves to the position that the pointer was on.

1.4.4.2.2 Mnemonics

A mnemonic is a readily recognized character that a user can type to move the cursor quickly from one place in a window to another. For example, if the cursor is on the first choice in a menu, a user can move the cursor directly to the last choice in the menu by typing the mnemonic for that choice. A mnemonic is typically indicated with an underline.

 

Figure 25. Mnemonic. A mnemonic is a character that a user can type to quickly move the cursor to the choice containing the mnemonic. Each underlined character in the figure is a mnemonic.

1.4.4.2.3 Shortcut Keys

A shortcut key is a key or a combination of keys that a user can press to select a choice from a menu. The menu need not be displayed. Shortcut keys are provided for choices that a user will use frequently. Shortcut keys provide a quicker method of interaction, particularly for experienced users who are likely to prefer remembering the combinations to displaying and navigating through a menu for each desired choice.

A shortcut key is typically displayed next to the choice it pertains to so that a user can learn to associate the shortcut key with that choice. A designer might want to provide a mechanism that allows users to turn off the display of the shortcut keys. Figure 26 illustrates some of the standard CUA shortcut keys.

 

Figure 26. Shortcut Keys. A shortcut key is a key or combination of keys that a user can press to select a choice from a menu. A user can use a shortcut key even when the menu containing the corresponding choice is not displayed.

1.4.5 Windows

A window is a part of the CUA interface through which a user can view an object. A window is bounded by a window border, which separates the window from other windows on the workplace. Within the border are mechanisms that allow a user to manipulate the window and its contents.

Figure 27. A Typical Window and Its Components

Figure 27 shows a typical window and its components. The system menu symbol, the window border, and the window sizing buttons allow a user to change the size and position of a window. The menu bar and scroll bars allow a user to work with the window's contents. The window title indicates the name of the object seen in the window, and it also indicates which kind of view (see "Views" in topic 1.4.5.1) is displayed. The information area displays brief messages to a user about the object or choice that the cursor is on. Information about the normal completion of a process can also appear in the information area. For example, if a user copies several objects from one container to another, the information area in a container's window could display a brief message to tell the user when the copying has been completed.

A window and its content--that is, the information below the menu bar and above the horizontal scroll bar--are not permanently tied together. A user can completely change the content of a window without opening a new window. For example, a user can change the view (see "Views" in topic 1.4.5.1) of the object displayed in the window. A user can also control how much of a window's content is visible by changing the size of the window or by splitting a window into separate portions called panes. Each pane can display different parts of the same object and can be scrolled independently.

Figure 28. A Window Divided into Two Panes

The CUA interface provides two types of windows: primary windows and secondary windows. A primary window appears when a user opens an object, and it is where the main interaction between a user and an object takes place. A secondary window appears when a user needs, or needs to provide, information related to an object in a primary window. For example, a secondary window might contain a message (see "Messages" in topic 1.4.7.1) or help information (see "Help" in topic 1.4.9), or it might contain controls (see "Controls" in topic 1.4.6.3.2) that help a user provide additional information.

1.4.5.1 Views

The content of a window is a view. A view is a way of looking at an object's information. Different views display information in different forms, which mimics the way information about an object is presented in the real world. Consider, for example, a user's manual for a personal computer system. A user's manual typically describes a computer system in several different ways. It provides:

° A picture of the entire system with each piece correctly set up
° A picture of each piece of the system
° A list of the pieces of the system, such as the display screen, keyboard, pointing device, and printer
° A list of the features of the system, such as the processing speed and memory capacity
° Step-by-step directions for setting up the system and for using each piece of the system.

Each of these ways of looking at or describing the computer system is a view of the system.

The CUA interface also provides different kinds of views for objects in the CUA environment. The appearance of a window's contents and the kinds of interaction possible in a window are determined, in part, by the type of view presented in the window. The four basic types of views are:

° Composed view
° Contents view
° Settings view
° Help view.

An object can have more than one view. In fact, most objects have several types of views.

To determine which types of views an object should have, a designer needs to consider which kinds of data an object contains. Some kinds of data have linear (or string-like) characteristics. For example, text can be thought of as a linear sequence of characters. An audio waveform is also linear, and so is a musical score. Other kinds of data have tabular (or array-like) characteristics. For example, a spreadsheet or text arranged in columns and rows is tabular. Still other kinds of data have neither linear nor tabular characteristics. Graphics and graphical components of an interface can be placed in various relative positions and still have meaning. They are said to have free-form characteristics.

A particular object can contain data that has one or more of these types of characteristics, but each characteristic might be displayed best in a different type of view. For each object, a designer should provide views that allow a user to display and work easily with each type of data contained in the object. When a user makes a change to the data displayed in one view of an object, the change should be reflected immediately in all other views of the same object (if the user has chosen to have the other views refreshed automatically).

Figure 29. Views Available for Representing Objects in the CUA User Interface. The CUA interface provides four basic types of views plus two particular kinds of contents views. A product can have a composed view or contents view tailored for that product's users.

The four basic types of views are described in the following sections. Designers should keep in mind that these four types of views represent idealized views along a continuum of possible views. A designer can create product-specific views that fall somewhere between these categories. A designer should provide an appropriate name, based on the users' conceptual model, for each view in a product.

1.4.5.1.2 Contents Views

A contents view lists the components of an object. The components can be ordered or unordered in the view; the order of the information displayed in a contents view does not affect the meaning of the object containing the information. For example, the data on which a graph object or chart object is based could be displayed as an alphabetic, numeric, or random list in a contents view. The data is still the same, no matter the order in which it is listed. Container objects in particular are likely to be displayed in a contents view, although data objects and device objects can also be displayed in a contents view. Figure 31 illustrates a contents view.

Figure 31. A Contents View. A contents view of a data object lists the data contained in the object. The order of the data does not affect the meaning of the object in a contents view.

The CUA interface provides for two standard kinds of contents views:

° Icons view
° Details view.

A designer can provide other product-specific kinds of contents views, depending on a user's needs. However, if a product includes objects that contain other objects, the product should provide at least the two standard kinds of contents views.

Icons View: An icons view displays each object as an icon and is appropriate when a designer wants to give a user an easy way to change the position of objects or to otherwise directly manipulate them (see "Interaction with Objects" in topic 1.4.6). From a user's perspective, an icon is the object itself. From a designer's perspective, an icon is a composed view of an object. Note, however, that an icons view is a contents view. Figure 32 shows an icons view of a folder object that contains several documents.

Figure 32. An Icons View of an Opened Folder. This view of the contents of a folder displays an icon for each contained object.

Reflections: An object usually is represented by only one icon. However, for some tasks, a user might find it convenient to represent an object with more than one icon. For example, a user might want a representation of a printer object in more than one place so that the user could have easy access to the printer from whichever folder or work area the user is working in. A user can create an additional icon, known as a reflection, to represent the same printer object.

Each reflection of a single object is related to the other reflections in such a way that when a user changes an object by way of one reflection, the change is reflected in all other reflections of the same object. However, if a user deletes a reflection, other reflections of the same object are not necessarily deleted. A user can choose to delete individual reflections or can delete all reflections of an object at once, at the user's discretion.

For related information, see "Icons" in topic 1.4.3.

Details View: A details view combines small icons with text that provides additional information about objects. The type of information displayed depends on the type of object and the type of tasks a user wants to perform. The benefit of a details view is that the user doesn't have to open an object to gain quick access to some of the object's more frequently used information. Small icons are included in a details view to provide a way for a user to directly manipulate each object.

Figure 33. A Details View. This view of the contents of a folder displays detailed information about each object in the folder. The details include the date the contained objects were created and the date they were last modified.

1.4.5.1.1 Composed Views

A composed view presents the components of an object in relative order and is appropriate when the relationships among the components contribute to the overall meaning of the object. Data objects in particular are likely to be displayed in a composed view. For example, a graph object or chart object would typically be displayed in a composed view because the arrangement of the components determines the meaning of the object as a whole. If the arrangement of the components changes, the meaning of the object changes. Figure 30 shows an example of a composed view.

 

Figure 30. A Composed View. A composed view of a data object arranges the object's data in an order that conveys the data's meaning. If the data were arranged differently in a composed view, the object would have a different meaning.

1.4.5.1.3 Settings Views

A settings view displays information about the characteristics, attributes, or properties of an object, and it provides a way for a user to change the settings of some characteristics or properties. Not all settings can be changed, however. For example, a user cannot change an object's creation date even though the date might be displayed in a settings view of the object.

A settings view typically is provided for each type of object. In a settings view for a data object such as a document, a user could change the font, type size, color, or whatever other settings are appropriate for the document. In a settings view for a device object such as a printer, a user could change the number of copies, the page orientation, the output destination, or whatever other settings are appropriate for the printer.

Settings views can be applied more broadly as well. For example, certain kinds of information about an object can be thought of as settings. An address book object might contain objects representing the people that a user writes to, and the settings for each of these objects might consist of the person's name and address. Figure 34 shows an example of a settings view.

 

Figure 34. A Settings View. This settings view of a folder object displays the object's current settings and provides mechanisms that allow a user to change the settings.

1.4.5.1.4 Help Views

A help view provides information that can assist a user in working with an object. The type of information displayed in a help view depends on the type of help a user requests. For example, a user can request help for an entire window or for just part of one. Figure 35 shows an example of help for the Work area choice in the My Folder - Settings window.

 

Figure 35. A Help View

For more details about the kind of help information that appears in a help view, see "Help" in topic 1.4.9.

1.4.5.1.5 Distinguishing a Composed View from a Contents View

From a designer's perspective, the distinction between a composed view and a contents view can be somewhat blurred, depending on the object being viewed. For example, a product might provide a kind of view that lists the sections of a document, much as an outline does. Lists of an object's components are characteristic of a contents view. However, the product's view might list the sections of the document in a meaningful order, which is characteristic of a composed view.

Designers should not be overly concerned about which category a particular view falls into. Instead, designers should create views that convey information in a form that is meaningful to users, regardless of where the views fall in the continuum of view types. The names that designers choose for the views should describe the information displayed and should be easily understood by users. For example, a product could provide a "Formatted Text" view or a "Page Layout" view as the composed view of a document. The product could also provide an "Outline" view as either a composed view or a contents view of a document.

1.4.6 Interaction with Objects

Natural languages typically have many more nouns than verbs, and a graphical user interface typically contains more objects than actions. Just as the same verb can be applied to many nouns, the same action can be applied to many objects. The object-action paradigm is a pattern for interaction in which a user first selects an object, then selects an action. When a user selects an object first, the system can then present a list of actions that can be applied to that object; the user does not have to remember which actions are available. The object-action paradigm is really a continuum, with direct manipulation at one end and indirect
manipulation at the other.

 

Figure 36. The Object-Action Continuum. At one end of the continuum is direct manipulation, in which an object and an action are closely bound. At the other end is indirect manipulation, in which a user selects an object, then selects an action. Between the two extremes are other manipulation techniques, such as drag and drop, pop-up menus, and menu bars.

Direct manipulation is interaction with an object by way of a pointing device. This interaction technique closely resembles the way a user interacts with objects in the real world. For example, using direct manipulation a user can "pick up" an object and put it into a folder. During direct manipulation, an object and an action are bound together closely.

Indirect manipulation is interaction with an object through choices and controls (see "Controls" in topic 1.4.6.3.2). Indirect manipulation can be accomplished with either a pointing device or a keyboard. During indirect manipulation, an object and an action are separated. A user selects an object first, then the interface immediately tailors and presents a list of appropriate actions, which are displayed as choices that the user can apply to that object. The product, rather than the user, stores the information that tells a user which actions can be applied to the selected object. Users who interact with a computer by using a keyboard exclusively can use indirect manipulation to obtain results equivalent to those available through the use of direct manipulation.

Other manipulation techniques can fall between the two extremes. For example, using a pop-up menu (see "Pop-up Menus" in topic 1.4.6.2) is more direct than using other kinds of menus, but it is less direct than dragging an object.

The following sections provide details about techniques and components used for interaction with objects.

1.4.6.1 Drag and Drop

Drag and drop is an interaction technique that falls at the direct manipulation end of the object-action continuum. It is called drag and drop because it involves moving an object from one place (dragging) and leaving it at another (dropping). For example, to change a value represented by a bar on a bar chart, a user could drag the end of a bar until the bar represented an appropriate new value. The user would then drop the end of the bar in the new location to complete the direct manipulation.

 

Figure 37. Direct Manipulation in a Bar Chart View of a Document Object. By dragging a bar, a user can change the value the bar represents.

Drag and drop often involves a source object and a target object. A source object is usually the object a user is working with, and a target object is usually an object that a user is transferring information to. For example, if a user drags a spreadsheet object to a printer object so that the spreadsheet will be printed, the spreadsheet is the source object and the printer is the target object.

The result of drag and drop can change depending on what the source object is and what the target object is. For example, if a user drags a spreadsheet object from one folder object and drops it onto another, the spreadsheet is moved to the target folder. However, if a user drops the same spreadsheet onto a printer object instead of a folder, the operating environment makes a copy of the spreadsheet and puts the copy into the printer's queue to be printed. The original spreadsheet is returned to its original location. Figure 38 illustrates printing a document by direct manipulation.

 

Figure 38. Printing by Direct Manipulation. A user can drag a document object to a printer object to print the document.

The CUA guidelines specify default results for drag and drop actions. The defaults are based on the types of objects (container, data, or device) being manipulated and on the following principles:

° When possible, the result of dragging and dropping an object should be the result that a user would expect, given the source object and target object being manipulated.
° The result of direct manipulation should be comparatively "safe"--that is, a user should not lose information unexpectedly.
° A user should be able to override a default result to obtain a different result.

1.4.6.2 Pop-up Menus

A second technique for interacting with objects involves the use of pop-up menus, which contain only those choices that pertain to an object at the time the menu is displayed. The menus are called pop-up menus because they appear to "pop up" next to an object when a user presses the appropriate key or mouse button. A pop-up menu is available for each object in an interface. Pop-up menus fall between drag and drop and menu bars in the object-action continuum. Access to an object's actions by way of a pop-up menu is more direct than access by way of other types of menus (see "Menus:" in topic 1.4.6.3.2) because a user does not have to select a choice from a menu bar first. However, pop-up menus are less direct than drag and drop.

The content of a pop-up menu is based on an object's context, which includes the object's container, the object's contents, and the object's state. Variations in an object's context lead to variations in an object's pop-up menu.

When a user displays a pop-up menu for a group of objects, the menu contains only those choices that can be applied to all objects in the group.

Pop-up menus are particularly useful for objects that incorporate other objects of different types, each requiring a different set of menu choices. For example, in a page layout product that contains text objects, scanned-image objects, and chart objects, a user could see a different pop-up menu for each type of object.

Figure 39. Pop-up Menu. A pop-up menu contains choices that can be applied to an object at the time that the menu is displayed. Different objects have different pop-up menus.

1.4.6.3 Choices and Controls

During indirect manipulation, a user interacts with an object by first selecting the object, then selecting a choice that performs the actual manipulation. The primary interface mechanisms for indirect manipulation are:

° Choices
° Controls.

Each of these interface components is discussed in more detail in the following sections.

1.4.6.3.1 Choices

A choice is text or a graphic that a user can select to modify or manipulate an object. Graphical user interfaces, including the CUA interface, are full of choices.

In the CUA environment there are three types of choices:

° Action choices
° Routing choices
° Settings choices.

Action Choices: An action choice immediately performs some task. For example, a choice labeled Print prints an object as soon as the user selects the choice.

Figure 40. Action Choice. The Print choice is an action choice. When a user selects the choice, an object is immediately printed on a user's printer.

Routing Choices: A routing choice displays a menu or a window from which a user can select additional choices or specify additional information about the task the user is performing. Except when a routing choice appears on a menu bar (see "Menu Bars" in topic 1.4.6.3.2), the name of a routing choice is followed by a rightward-pointing arrow or an ellipsis (...). The arrow indicates that the choice displays a menu, and the ellipsis indicates that the choice displays a window. For example, a choice labeled Refresh ÿ displays a menu containing choices such as On and Off, which modify the Refresh ÿ choice. A choice labeled Sort...displays a window from which a user can specify the order in which items
should be sorted. Figure 41 shows examples of routing choices.

Figure 41. Routing Choices. When a user selects a routing choice, a window or another menu appears. The View choice on the menu bar is a routing choice. When a user selects it, a pull-down menu appears. The Sort... choice in the View menu is also a routing choice. When a user selects it, the pull-down menu disappears and a secondary window appears.

Settings Choices: A settings choice allows a user to display or change the characteristics or properties of an object. A settings choice can also be an action choice if the change in a setting occurs as soon as a user selects the settings choice. For example, a choice labeled Blue would allow a user to display or change the color of an object to blue. If the object's color changes as soon as a user selects the choice, the Blue choice is both a settings choice and an action choice.

Figure 42. Settings Choice. A user selects a settings choice to display or change the characteristics of an object.

1.4.6.3.2 Controls

The CUA interface provides standard mechanisms for indirect manipulation. These mechanisms are called controls, and they are used to display or obtain certain kinds of information. Various controls can be combined in a view to provide a user a way to modify an object.

Menus: A menu is a mechanism for presenting lists of choices to a user. Menus are a staple of most commercially available graphical user interfaces today. The CUA interface includes four types of menus:

° Menu bars
° Pull-down menus
° Cascaded menus
° Pop-up menus.

Figure 43. Menus. The CUA interface includes menu bars, pull-down menus, cascaded menus, and pop-up menus.

Each type of menu is used for a certain purpose or in a certain kind of situation. Menu bars, pull-down menus, and cascaded menus are described in the following sections. However, because pop-up menus are used for direct manipulation rather than indirect manipulation, they are described at "Pop-up Menus" in topic 1.4.6.2.

Menu Bars: A menu bar appears across the top of most windows, just below the window title. It is a horizontal list of routing choices. When a user selects a choice from a menu bar, an associated pull-down menu is displayed.

The name of each routing choice on a menu bar indicates what kinds of choices appear in the associated pull-down menu. By naming the routing choices descriptively, a designer encourages a user to learn by exploring.

Pull-Down Menus: A pull-down menu is displayed when a user selects a choice from a menu bar. Pull-down menus contain choices that are related to one another in some manner. For example, all choices in a pull-down menu could apply to:

° An entire object (the object displayed in a window)
° A selected object (within a window)
° Help information
° A view of an object.

Cascaded Menus: A cascaded menu is displayed beside a pull-down menu or a pop-up menu when a user selects a routing choice labeled with the ÿ symbol. A cascaded menu contains choices that modify or are related to the routing choice. Cascaded menus provide a way for a designer to layer choices so that a user can have access to a wide range of function without being confused by lengthy lists of choices.

Entry Fields: An entry field is an area into which a user can type or place text. Its boundaries are usually indicated. An entry field is appropriate for situations in which the entire possible set of values cannot be predicted. For example, if a product required a user's identification number, a designer typically would specify an entry field as the mechanism for eliciting that information, because the designer has no way to predict the numbers of all possible users.

Figure 44. Entry Field. An entry field is an area into which a user can type information.

A variation of an entry field is a read-only field. A read-only field contains information that cannot be directly altered by a user. For example, a user cannot alter a read-only field by typing new information over the existing information in the field. However, if the value in a read-only field is calculated automatically according to the values in entry fields, a user could change the value in the read-only field by changing the values in the associated entry fields. For example, an Age field might be a read-only field containing a value calculated from an entry field that contains a birthdate. Although a user cannot change the value in the Age field by directly typing into the field, the user can change the value by changing the value in the Date of Birth entry field.

List Box: A list box usually consists of a read-only field and a scroll bar. It is used to display a fixed or variable list of objects or a fixed or variable list of settings choices. Because the display area can be scrolled, the list can contain more items than can be displayed at one time in the display area. The items in the list can be text or graphics, and a user typically can select an item from a list box.

Figure 45. List Box. A list box displays text or graphics.

Combination Box: A combination box combines an entry field with a list box. A user can type information into the entry field or can fill the entry field by selecting one of the items from the list. A combination box is appropriate when a designer can predict possible values for the entry field and wants to serve the needs of both novice and experienced users. The list box portion of the control prompts novice users to select an appropriate value, while the entry field portion provides a quicker means of interaction for experienced users and allows users to type values not contained in the list.

Figure 46. Combination Box. A combination box combines an entry field with a list box.

Drop-Down List: If a situation calls for a list box, but a list box would crowd the window in which it is displayed, a designer can specify a drop-down list instead. A drop-down list is a variation of a list box in which only one item in the list is displayed until a user takes an action to display the rest of the list.

Figure 47. Drop-Down List. A drop-down list displays only one item in the list until a user takes an action to display the rest of the list.

Drop-Down Combination Box: If a situation calls for a combination box, but a combination box would crowd the window in which it is displayed, a designer can specify a drop-down combination box instead. A drop-down combination box is a variation of a combination box in which only the entry field portion is displayed until a user takes an action to display the list box portion of the control. When a user selects an item from the list, that item appears in the entry field.

Figure 48. Drop-Down Combination Box. A drop-down combination box displays only an entry field until a user takes an action to display the list box portion of the control.

Spin Button: A spin button allows a user to choose a value from a finite set of related but mutually exclusive values that have a natural sequence. For example, a spin button would be appropriate for displaying the days of the week or the months of the year. A spin button is also appropriate for displaying choices that increase or decrease in constant units.

The values in a spin button are displayed as if they were arranged in a ring. When a user presses the up arrow ("), the value displayed increases. When a user presses the down arrow (), the value displayed decreases.

Figure 49. Spin Button. A spin button displays related but mutually exclusive choices that have a natural sequence or that increase or decrease in constant units. When a user presses the up arrow ("), the value displayed increases. When a user presses the down arrow (), the value displayed decreases.

Push Button: A push button can be used to display an action choice or a routing choice. When a user selects a push button, the action or routing represented is carried out immediately. A push button is appropriate when a designer wants to give a user convenient access to a frequently used choice.

Figure 50. Push Button

A designer can replace the standard push button visual (shown in Figure 50) with a product-specific visual if it clearly conveys the action that the push button represents. For example, push buttons for a video recorder object might resemble the buttons on a real video recorder.

Figure 51. Modified Push Button Visuals. The appearance of the push buttons in this multimedia control panel has been modified so that the push buttons resemble the buttons on a real control panel.

The window sizing buttons that are part of a typical window are also examples of push buttons with a modified appearance.

Radio Button: A radio button is so named because it operates like the buttons that used to be found on car radios: only one radio button can be selected at a time, and when a user selects a radio button, any previously selected radio button is inactivated.

Radio buttons are used to display mutually exclusive choices in situations in which a user must select a choice. Thus, a field of radio buttons always contains at least two radio buttons. Radio buttons prevent a user from selecting incompatible choices. For example, a product might contain the choices On and Off in a single context. Because it would not make sense for an object to be both on and off at the same time, a designer should specify radio buttons to display the mutually exclusive On and Off choices. Likewise, if a field of radio buttons pertained to a car's transmission, it would not make sense for a user to be able to select both an automatic transmission and a manual transmission for the same car. The radio buttons help prevent a user from making an error.

Figure 52. Radio Buttons. Radio buttons can be used to display mutually exclusive textual choices.

Value Set: Like radio buttons, a value set is used to present mutually exclusive choices. However, a value set is used primarily for graphical choices, and the choices are arranged in a matrix. Value sets are useful for creating palettes of tools.

Figure 53. Value Set. A value set is a matrix of mutually exclusive choices. It is used primarily to display graphical choices.

Check Box: A check box is used to display a settings choice in a group of settings choices that are not mutually exclusive. Check boxes are appropriate for choices that have two clearly discernible states. For example, a check box would be appropriate for a choice that locked an object, because a user would easily understand that selecting the check box locks the object, and not selecting the check box leaves the object unlocked.

A field of check boxes can contain one or more choices, and a user can select one or more check boxes, or not select any.

Figure 54. Check Boxes. Check boxes provide a way to display choices that are not mutually exclusive. For example, a car could have both air conditioning and power brakes. Each check box choice has two states, such as on or off. Users can easily understand that checking the air conditioning choice means that air conditioning is desired (on), while not checking automatic power antenna means that the antenna is not desired (off).

Slider: A slider is an analog representation of a value. When a slider is used to display a particular value amid a range of possible values, the slider typically shows a scale marked with equal units of value. For example, a designer might use a slider to indicate the volume level of an audio signal. The slider could indicate decibels.

Figure 55. Slider. A slider can be used to display or manipulate specific values.

When a slider is used to display relative values with no corresponding quantitative value, the slider doesn't necessarily show a scale, but it does indicate what the relative extremes of the scale are. For example, a designer might use a slider to indicate an approximate temperature amid a range of acceptable temperatures. One end of the range could be labeled Low and the other end labeled High.

Figure 56. Slider. A slider can also be used to display or manipulate relative values.

Some sliders cannot be manipulated. For example, a read-only slider can be used as a progress indicator, but a user cannot alter the value represented by the slider.

Figure 57. Read-Only Slider. A read-only slider can be used to display a value that a user cannot change directly. For example, a read-only slider can be used as a progress indicator.

Notebook: A notebook is used to display any kind of data that can be arranged in distinct groups that a user would find useful. Settings choices are typically displayed in a notebook because a notebook provides a convenient way for a user to change many settings at once. For example, a designer might place all of the settings for a document object into a notebook. Likewise, all of the settings for a printer object could be displayed in a notebook.

Objects and other kinds of choices can also be displayed in a notebook. For example, a product could provide a notebook to display a collection of graphic objects, such as clip art.

Figure 58. Notebook. A notebook is used to display objects or choices that can be arranged in logical groups that a user would find useful.

1.4.6.4 Selection

Through the process of selection, users indicate which items they want to work with. Users can select items by using a pointing device (typically a mouse) or keyboard. To select an item, a user moves the pointer or cursor to the item to be selected and then presses the appropriate mouse button or keyboard key. Most selection techniques that make use of a keyboard parallel those that make use of a mouse, although there are some exceptions.

During explicit selection users specifically indicate each item they want to work with. For example, users can move the pointer or selection cursor to each item. When a user explicitly selects an item, the item is highlighted with some kind of visible cue. When a user removes selection from an item, the visible cue is removed as well. The process of removing selection is called deselection. Because an item remains selected until a user deselects it, a user can apply more than one action to a selected item without having to select the item again before each action. A user can explicitly select more than one object at a time.

During implicit selection a user can gain access to an item's actions without explicitly selecting the item. For example, a user can display an object's pop-up menu by placing the pointer on the object and pressing the appropriate mouse button. The object is not selected, but its actions are available. Likewise, a user can move the cursor to an item and can get help information (see "Help" in topic 1.4.9) about the item without explicitly selecting the item.

An implicitly selected item is not highlighted with a visible cue, and a user can implicitly select only one item at a time.

When a user selects an object, the object is not altered in any way, except that the object can become visibly highlighted to indicate that it is selected. A user can select and deselect an object any number of times without otherwise affecting the object. However, when a user selects an action, the action immediately affects whatever object or objects the user has selected. For example, if a user selects an action that updates an object's information, the information is changed immediately.

1.4.6.4.1 Scope of Selection

A scope of selection is an area within which a user can select items. For example, one scope of selection might consist of an individual control, such as a list box, while another might consist of a field of controls. Each window is also a separate scope of selection.

If a user selects something in a particular scope of selection, a previously selected item in that same scope can be affected, while items selected in other scopes of selection remain unaffected. For example, if a user selects an item in a secondary window, a previously selected item in that window can become deselected, while an item selected in a related primary window remains selected.

1.4.6.4.2 One-Based Selection and Zero-Based Selection

When a scope of selection requires that at least one item within the scope always be selected, that scope is said to have one-based selection. For example, if a list box contains the names of colors that can be applied to an interface component, a designer can make the list box a one-based scope of selection to ensure that a user selects a color.

 

Figure 59. An Example of One-Based Selection. One-based selection means that at least one item must be selected. For example, in a list box containing colors that can be applied to an interface component, one color must be selected at all times.

When a scope of selection does not require that an item within the scope be selected, that scope is said to have zero-based selection. For example, a container object, such as a folder, can be zero-based if a user's task does not require that a contained object be selected at all times.

 

Figure 60. An Example of Zero-Based Selection. Zero-based selection means that an item does not necessarily have to be selected. For example, in this contents view of a container, no object is selected.

1.4.6.4.3 Types of Selection

CUA guidelines specify three types of selection:

° Single selection, which allows a user to select only one item at a time in a given scope of selection
° Multiple selection, which allows a user to select one or more items at a time in a given scope of selection
° Extended selection, which allows a user to select one item and then easily extend the selection to other items in the same scope of selection.

Each scope of selection uses one of the three types of selection. A designer decides which type to use by considering which result--only one item selected, more than one item selected, or usually one item but sometimes more than one item selected--a typical user will want during selection. The type of selection used is not affected by whether the scope of selection is zero-based or one-based.

Single Selection: Single selection is the process of selecting only one item at a time. When a user selects an item during single selection, any previously selected item in the same scope of selection becomes deselected. Single selection is appropriate for scopes of selection in which the items displayed are mutually exclusive or in which a user typically wants to select only one item.

Figure 61. An Example of Single Selection. This list box has been defined as a single-selection scope of selection. When a user selects an item in the list box, any item that was previously selected becomes deselected.

Multiple Selection: Multiple selection is the process of selecting more than one item in a scope of selection. When a user selects an item during multiple selection, any previously selected items in the same scope of selection remain selected. Multiple selection is appropriate for scopes of selection in which items are not mutually exclusive in the context of a user's task.

Figure 62. An Example of Multiple Selection. This list box has been defined as a multiple-selection scope of selection. When a user selects an item or items in the list box, any previously selected item or items remain selected.

Extended Selection: Extended selection is the process of selecting one item and then extending the selection to additional items. Extended selection is appropriate for scopes of selection in which a user typically wants to select only one item but occasionally wants to select more than one item.

To use extended selection in a scope in which single selection is the default, a user first selects one item. Then, to select additional items, the user explicitly indicates that the selection of the first item is to be extended to include the additional items. For example, a user might select an item then press a designated key on the keyboard, alone or in combination with a mouse button. When the user selects another item, the first item remains selected because the user has explicitly indicated (by pressing the designated key or button) that the initial selection is to be extended.

Extended selection accommodates the needs of inexperienced users, who tend to select only one item at a time, and it also accommodates the needs of experienced users, who tend to recognize that in some situations selecting more than one item is a more efficient way to work. Containers typically make use of extended selection. Figure 63 illustrates extended selection.

Figure 63. Extended Selection. In the top window, a user has selected one object. In the bottom window, the user has extended the selection of the first object to include additional objects.

Various scopes of selection use various types of selection. Figure 64 shows which types of selection can be used with windows and controls.

 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 64. Types of Selection Used in Various Scopes of Selection 						       |
|_______________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________|
| 						| Type of Selection 						      |
| 						|_______________________ _______________________ ______________________|
| Scope of Selection 				|Single Selection	| Multiple Selection | Extended Selection     |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Window 					| 	° 		| 	° 		| 	° 	       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Menu 						| 	° 		| 			|		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| List Box 					| 	° 		| 	° 		| 		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Combination Box 				| 	° 		| 			| 		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Drop-Down List 				| 	° 		| 			| 		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Drop-Down Combination Box 			| 	° 		| 			|		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Spin Button 					| 	° 		| 			| 		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Push Button 					| 	°		| 			| 		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Field of Radio Buttons 			| 	° 		| 			| 		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Value Set 					| 	° 		| 			| 		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Individual Check Box 				| 	° 		| 			| 		       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|
| Field of Check Boxes    			| 			| 	° 		| 	 	       |
|_______________________________________________|_______________________|_______________________|______________________|

1.4.6.4.4 Selection Techniques

In a CUA environment a user can select items in two ways. A user can:

° Select an individual item
° Select a beginning point and an endpoint, between which all items are selected.

The selection techniques for selecting an individual item are:

° Point selection
° Random-point selection.

The selection technique for selecting items between two points is called point-to-endpoint selection.

To determine which selection techniques are most useful to a user for a particular task, a designer should consider the type of data being selected and the form in which it is displayed.

Point Selection: During point selection, a user places the pointer or cursor on an individual item and selects it. Point selection can be used for single selection, multiple selection, or extended selection.

Automatic selection is a variation of point selection in which the steps of indicating an item and selecting the item are combined for keyboard users.

Figure 65. Automatic Selection. Automatic selection is a variation of point selection in which a keyboard user indicates and selects an item in one step.

Random-Point Selection: During random-point selection, a user places the pointer or cursor on an item and selects it. The user then moves the pointer or cursor to another item and selects it. The items do not have to be next to one another, and the user can select the items in any order. Each item becomes selected in succession. Random-point selection can be used for multiple or extended selection.

Point-to-Endpoint Selection: During point-to-endpoint selection, a user places the pointer or cursor at a beginning point, then moves the pointer or cursor to an endpoint. Each item between the beginning point and endpoint becomes selected. Point-to-endpoint selection can be used for multiple or extended selection.

1.4.6.4.5 Design Considerations for Selection

When deciding how selection should work in a product, a designer must make a series of decisions. The decisions are shown in Figure 66.

Figure 66. Decisions for Selection. A designer must first consider a user's objects and tasks to determine how many objects the user should be allowed to select at one time within a scope of selection. Next a designer must consider the minimum number of items that must be selected. Then, by evaluating the type of
data being presented, the form in which it is presented, and the types of tasks the user will be trying to accomplish, the designer can determine which selection techniques to provide.

For each scope of selection, a designer must consider a user's objects and tasks to determine how many objects a user will want to select in that scope of selection. The designer also must consider whether a user must select at least one object in that scope. If so, the scope of selection is one-based. If not, the scope of selection is zero-based. If a user will want to select only one object at a time, then the designer provides single selection for that scope. If the user will want to select more than one object at a time, then the designer provides multiple selection for that scope. If the user will typically want to select only one object but might occasionally want to select more than one object, then the designer provides extended selection for that scope.

For single selection, a designer must provide point selection and should consider whether to provide automatic selection in addition to point selection. For multiple selection, a designer must provide point selection and either point-to-endpoint selection or random-point selection (or both).

Figure 67. Random-point Selection. During random-point selection a user selects several items in any order. The items do not have to be contiguous.

For extended selection, a designer must provide point selection and can provide point-to-endpoint selection or random-point selection or both.

Areas and Ranges: When a user selects an item or items by using point-to-endpoint selection, the result is either a selected area or a selected range. An area is determined by the spatial arrangement of the selected items, while a range is determined by the meaning or sequence of the objects. For example, in a text document, an area of selection could be delimited by a rectangle defined by a user. A range of selection could be an irregular shape with a beginning point and an endpoint defined by a user, but with the intermediate points determined by the product. Figure 68 shows the difference between an area of selection and a range of selection in text.

Figure 68. Area Selection and Range Selection in Text. In an area of selection, the boundary of the selected text is regular and is based on the spatial area indicated by a user. All items within the area (in this case, a rectangle defined by a beginning point and an endpoint) are selected. In a range of selection, the boundary of the selected text can be irregular. A user defines the beginning point and the endpoint, and the product determines which intermediate points are selected. For some kinds of tasks, a designer might want to provide both area
selection and range selection.

To determine whether the result of point-to-endpoint selection should be an area or a range, a designer must consider the characteristics of the data displayed in the view of the object. A designer must also consider a user's tasks. If the data has linear or tabular characteristics (for example, text, audio waveforms, musical scores, forms, spreadsheets), a user will typically want a range of selection, but for some tasks a user might want an area of selection. For some kinds of data and tasks, a designer might want to provide both area selection and range selection.

Figure 69. Range Selection in Tabular Data. For tabular data, a designer typically provides range selection. For example, in a spreadsheet, a user can define a beginning point anywhere in a cell, then can define an endpoint anywhere in another cell. The two cells, in their entirety, form opposite corners of the
range of selection, and all other cells in the columns and rows between the corners are also selected.

1.4.6.5 Copying and Creating Objects

A user can copy or create objects from existing objects. When a user copies an object, the resulting new object is an exact duplicate of the original object. The new object can even have the same name as the original object, or the user can change the object's name. When a user creates an object, the resulting new object is similar but not identical to the original object, and it has a new name. The original object is, in effect, a template for the new object. A designer can provide designated objects that act as templates for creating new objects. The designated objects have special visual representations. Figure 70 shows a template of a folder.

Figure 70. A Folder Template. A user can create a new folder by using direct or indirect manipulation on an existing object.

For example, if a user copies a text document, say an invoice, the new invoice will contain all of the text, settings, and other elements of the original invoice and will have the same invoice number. However, if a user creates a new invoice from an existing invoice, the new invoice will contain some--but not all--of the information in the original invoice. The newly created invoice might contain the same company name, mailing address, and entry fields as in the original invoice, but the invoice date and invoice number would be different, and the customer name and other entry fields would not contain the same information as the original.

A designer decides how much information is transferred from one object to another during object creation and bases the decision on the objects and tasks involved. In the invoice example above, a relatively small amount of information is transferred to the newly created invoice. For some objects and tasks, however, nearly all of the information might be transferred. For example, an attorney might work with a set of document objects containing boilerplate text. When the attorney creates a new object, all of the text, except for a client's name, date, and other particulars, is transferred to the new object.

A user can copy and create objects by both direct and indirect manipulation.

1.4.6.5.1 The Clipboard

When using indirect manipulation to copy or create objects, a user uses the clipboard. The clipboard is an area of storage provided by the operating system to hold data temporarily. A user can copy, create, and move objects to and from the clipboard. The objects are held on the clipboard until the user replaces them with other objects or until the user turns off the system.

The clipboard can hold entire objects or parts of objects, and it can hold any kind of object. For example, the clipboard can hold a single line of text or an entire document object, a single data record or an entire database, a single line segment or an entire graphic. Except when necessary to prevent the corruption of data, a designer should not restrict a user from placing any objects or parts of objects onto the clipboard.

1.4.7 Keeping a User Informed


For a user to be in control of his or her interaction with a product, the user must be aware of the state of objects, processes, or other elements of the interaction. The CUA user interface provides several ways for a product to communicate this kind of information to a user.

1.4.7.1 Messages

A message provides the most detailed kind of information to a user and is appropriate when the information is particularly important or urgent. Message windows often contain not only a description of a problem but also an explanation of how to correct the situation. They also contain push buttons that help a user decide how to continue working. Some message windows contain more elaborate groups of controls that allow a user to make more extensive corrections right in the message window.

 

Figure 71. Message. A message describes a situation and can contain controls that help a user decide which action to take.

1.4.7.2 Progress Indicators

To provide feedback to a user during longer (typically five seconds or more) processes, a designer can use a progress indicator. A progress indicator is a visible cue that indicates progress toward the completion of a process, for example copying or sorting a group of objects. A progress indicator can indicate a specific amount of time. For example, a progress indicator could consist of a digital clock that displays the time remaining in a process. A progress indicator can also indicate a relative amount of time. For example, a progress indicator could consist of a slider that fills gradually as the process continues. When the process is complete, the slider is completely filled. A progress indicator can appear in its own window or in the window of the object that is undergoing the process.

 

Figure 72. Progress Indicators. Progress indicators can take several forms. The top progress indicator indicates the time remaining in a process. The one in the center indicates both the total time a process will take and the time elapsed so far. The one on the bottom indicates the amount of the task completed in
relation to the amount of the task yet to be completed.

1.4.7.3 Information Areas

An information area is a small area, usually at the bottom of a window, used to display a brief explanation or description of the state of an object. It can also be used to display brief help information or information about the completion of a process. Information areas are less disruptive than messages and are appropriate for information that is not urgent.

 

Figure 73. Information Area. An information area can be used to display a brief explanation or description of the state of an object.

1.4.7.4 Status Areas

A status area differs from an information area in that it displays information about the view of an object rather than about the object itself. For example, a status area could display a count of the number of objects in a container displayed in a view, or it could indicate whether the information displayed in the view has been sorted or filtered. A status area typically appears at the top of a window, below the menu bar.

 

Figure 74. Status Area. A status area displays information about the view of an object. This status area indicates that this details view of a container object has been filtered according to some criteria specified by a user. Ten cars match the criteria.

1.4.7.5 Emphasis

Emphasis is a visible cue that distinguishes one object or group of objects from another and conveys information to a user. Emphasis is typically used to indicate that an object or group of objects is:

° Selected
° The source of a direct manipulation operation
° The target of a direct manipulation operation
° In use
° Unavailable.

Emphasis can be used to display other kinds of information appropriate for a specific product.

 

Figure 75. Emphasis. Emphasis is visible highlighting that conveys information to a user. The icon on the left has emphasis indicating that it has been selected. The emphasis on the first choice in the pull-down menu indicates that the choice is unavailable.

1.4.8 Exception Handling

An exception is any event or situation that prevents or has the potential to prevent a user's action from being completed in the manner the user expects. Exceptions occur when a product is unable to interpret a user's action.

Thoughtful application design can often prevent exceptions. For example, if a designer specifies a way to indicate to a user that a choice is unavailable, the user is less likely to try to select that choice. However, because a designer cannot predict every possible action a user might attempt, a product should include provisions for notifying users about exceptions and should provide ways to help users recover from them.

Users typically do not expect an exception to occur, although experienced users can learn to recognize situations that lead to an exception. For example, a user might habitually attempt to close an object without first saving any changes made to the object. Each time the user attempts to close an object, a typical product would notify the user that the object has been changed and that the changes are about to be discarded. Eventually the user would come to expect the exception.

When an exception occurs, a product needs to tell a user at least three things:

° How severe the situation is
° How soon the user must respond
° What actions the user can take to correct the situation.

Because most users do not expect most exceptions, a designer should take care to choose a notification method that will inform a user without alarming the user. There are many methods for conveying this information to a user. A designer should choose methods appropriate for the users' tasks and work environment, and a designer should apply the methods consistently throughout a product. In addition, the designer should make sure that the notification methods complement the help (see "Help" in topic 1.4.9) provided by the product so that a user can completely understand the exception and how to respond to it.

Typical methods for notifying a user about an exception include:

° Audible cues
° Visible cues
° Textual cues.

Each is discussed in the following sections.

1.4.8.1 Audible Cues

An audible cue is a sound generated by a user's computer to draw a user's attention. A beep is an example of a simple audible cue. If a product will be used with computer hardware that has advanced audio capabilities, a designer can be imaginative in specifying more elaborate audible cues, such as speech synthesis, for example.

1.4.8.2 Visible Cues

A visible cue is a change in the appearance of a product's components. For example, if a user places an inappropriate type of information in an entry field, the color of the entry field could change to alert the user that the information falls outside the range of acceptable values for that entry field.

 

Figure 76. Visible Cue. A visible cue can be used to indicate to a user that different information is required.

If an object other than the object a user is working with requires some attention from the user before an exception can be resolved, the appearance of the object's icon could change. For example, if a printer has run out of paper, the icon that represents the printer could change.

 

Figure 77. Visible Cue. A visible cue can be used to indicate to a user that an item in an interface needs attention from the user.

1.4.8.3 Textual Cues

When a user needs more information than can be conveyed with an audible cue or visual cue, a designer can use a textual cue. A textual cue consists of a word or words describing the exception. A textual cue can be displayed in a message window.

1.4.8.4 Examples of Exceptions and Their Corresponding Notifications

The following examples illustrate notification methods for alerting a user to a problem.

1. A user types an inappropriate value into an entry field.

A product could do one or more of the following:

° Generate an audible cue.
° Change the color of the background of the entry field containing the error.
° Display a message window that describes the error, explains how to correct the error, and provides controls that allow the user to correct the error from within the message window (for example, the message window could contain an entry field into which the user could type an appropriate value).

After the user supplies an appropriate value, the background color of the entry field would change back to its usual color, and the message window would close.


2. A printer runs out of paper, and the user has not opened a window for the printer object.

A product could do one or more of the following:

° Change the appearance of the printer's icon to indicate that the printer needs attention.
° Generate an audible cue.
° Display a message window as soon as the user opens a window for the printer object. The message window would describe the situation and would contain a push button that allows the user to close the message window.

After the user supplies the printer with paper, the printer's icon would change back to its normal appearance.

1.4.9 Help


A product should provide information to a user about how to use the product and how to recover from exceptions. Information about how to use a product is known as help information. Ideally, a product's help facilities should work together with its methods and mechanisms for exception handling to provide a user with all of the information needed to solve any problem the user might encounter.

Help information describes a product's choices, objects, and interaction techniques. Help information can help a user learn to use a product and can serve as a refresher when a user has not used a product regularly or recently.

Products designed for a CUA environment should provide several kinds of help:

° Information about the contents of a window and the tasks a user can perform in the window
° Information about any selected item, including the item's purpose and ways to interact with the item
° Information about the key assignments on the keyboard
° An index of all of the topics for which help is available
° Information about using the help facility.

1.5 Chapter 5. The CUA Designer's Model--A Summary

When combined, the classes of objects described in Chapter 1 (see "Object Classes" in topic 1.1.4.1), the design principles described in Chapter 3, and the components of the CUA interface described in Chapter 4 form a designer's model of the CUA user interface. The following sections present a summary of how these parts are related in the CUA user interface.

The CUA designer's model contains all of the fundamental concepts, components, and relationships in a CUA environment. A designer can use the CUA designer's model as a foundation for developing products that are user-oriented. Elements of the CUA designer's model can be reused and extended to create a user interface appropriate for the intended users' tasks. Figure 78 illustrates the CUA designer's model, including the interrelatedness of the components of the CUA user interface.

Figure 78. Designer's Model of the CUA Interface. Each arrow represents a relationship between two of the boxed items on the chart. Characteristics of the relationship are indicated by the direction of the arrow and by the text beside each arrow. For example, the arrow that points from Container to Object means
that a container is an object. Double bars indicate a one-to-many relationship. For example, one container object can contain many other objects.

The three sections of the figure--object relationships, visual representations, and interaction mechanisms--correspond to the three layers of the iceberg model of interface design (see Figure 8 in topic 1.2.3).

The figures in the following sections highlight and elaborate on some of the relationships in the CUA user interface.

1.5.1 CUA Class Hierarchy


In the CUA environment, container objects, data objects, and device objects inherit the attributes common to all objects. The workplace, folders, and product-specific containers inherit the attributes common to all containers.

 

Figure 79. Class Hierarchy in the CUA User Interface. Each object that appears below another object in this hierarchy inherits characteristics of the objects above it.

1.5.2 CUA Containment


Most objects in the CUA user interface contain other objects. The workplace fills a user's display screen and contains all of the objects a user works with, including components of the CUA interface. Figure 80 shows the basic containment relationships of components of the CUA interface.

 

Figure 80. A Containment Hierarchy for the CUA User Interface. A user's screen contains the workplace, which contains windows, icons, and the pointer. Windows contain views and the cursor. Views contain other views, controls, and product-specific visual representations of objects.

1.5.3 CUA Visual Representations


The elements of a user's computer system are represented visually in the CUA interface. Figure 81 shows how the elements are represented.

 ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 
Figure 81. Visual Representations in the CUA User Interface
_________________________________________________________________
| This element... 	| Has this visual representation.       |
|_______________________|_______________________________________|
| Screen 		| Workplace 				|
|_______________________|_______________________________________|
| Object 		| Icon and views			|
|_______________________|_______________________________________|
| Mouse 		| Pointer 				|
|_______________________|_______________________________________|
| Keyboard 		| Cursor 				|
|_______________________|_______________________________________|

1.5.4 CUA Views


The views available for representing objects are shown in Figure 82. For a more detailed discussion of views, see "Views" in topic 1.4.5.1.

 

Figure 82. Views Available for Representing Objects in the CUA User Interface. The CUA interface provides four basic types of views.

1.5.5 CUA Interaction Mechanisms


Interaction in the CUA user interface consists of input and feedback. Figure 83 shows the elements of interaction in the CUA user interface.

 

Figure 83. Interaction Mechanisms in the CUA User Interface. Interaction consists of input and feedback. Input can be by way of a mouse, keyboard, or touch. Feedback consists of audible cues and visible cues. Visible cues can be textual or graphical.

A user's input modifies a view, which can modify the object represented in the view.

1.6 Chapter 6. Designing a Product with a CUA User Interface


To illustrate one approach to the process of designing a product with a CUA user interface, we designed a sample product, and we documented our steps. This chapter describes those steps. Designers can follow these steps or can adapt this process to suit their needs.

We designed a product that could be used for selling new cars at a car dealership. Our design is a partial design only, intended to highlight the main design considerations and the processes a designer can follow when developing a user interface. A full-fledged product design would contain much more detail.

The product is an example only, and it is not intended to represent the practices of a particular car dealership, nor is it intended to represent the ideal product for all car dealerships. Likewise, our process is an example only. This process worked for us, but a different process might work equally well for a different group of designers.

1.6.1 Overview of the Development Process

The basic steps in our development process were:

° Researching and planning
° Designing
° Prototyping
° Testing.

Each of these steps entails one or more subprocesses of its own, and we went through each step for each part our product's interface. When we tested each part of our product, we compared the results with the objectives we set during the planning stage. If the results met our customer's requirements and our requirements, we proceeded to design the next part of the interface. If not, we changed the design and tested the product again. This process is known as an iterative development process. Figure 84 illustrates the iterative development process.

Figure 84. Iterative Development Process. For each part of our product's interface, we developed a prototype and tested the prototype. When the test results satisfied us, we moved on to the next part of the interface.

During each iteration of the development process, we kept in mind the design principles discussed in Chapter 3, "Goals and Design Principles of the CUA User Interface" in topic 1.3. That is, we looked for ways to:

° Provide immediate feedback for each action
° Reduce the number of steps required to accomplish a task
° Provide full function with a small number of objects
° Increase a user's control over the product
° Reduce the potential for exceptions
° Reduce the effect of exceptions
° Allow a user to use either the keyboard or the mouse to accomplish a task
° Provide interaction techniques suited to the needs of novice users and expert users.

Finally we arrived at a satisfactory design.

The rest of this chapter describes the processes we used in researching, planning, and designing our product. Although prototyping and testing also have their own processes, a detailed discussion of prototyping and testing is beyond the scope of this book. However, we will say that we tested our product for consistent behavior and for compatibility with a user's expectations. We also sought feedback from test subjects about whether the product was pleasing to use.

1.6.2 Researching and Planning the Product


First we recognized that we were serving two distinct audiences: the people who buy a product (our customers) and the people who use a product (our users). Sometimes the two audiences overlap, but in this case, our customers were the upper management staff of a car dealership, while the users were primarily the sales staff and lower management staff.

To begin our iterative development process we had to:

° Gather requirements from upper management
° Learn about the users and their tasks
° Match management's requirements to the users' tasks.

1.6.2.1 Step 1. Gathering Requirements from Management

By interviewing the owner and general manager, we learned that they wanted to:

° Eliminate paperwork
° Reduce errors in locating cars and information about cars
° Increase the amount of time salespeople spend talking with customers by reducing the amount of time the salespeople spend tracking down information and getting approval of sales
° Sell more cars.

The information from management was result-oriented--that is, the managers did not tell us the details about how they sell cars, nor did they tell us how they expected us to design a product. Instead, they gave us high-level information about what they hoped to gain by using our product.

1.6.2.2 Step 2. Learning about Users and Their Tasks

To serve the needs of the users of our product, we had to gather information about the users. We interviewed a salesperson with extensive experience at car dealerships. He helped us compile a profile of car salespeople, the primary users of our product.

In particular, we were interested in salespeople's:

° Experience
- How much experience do they have doing their job?
- How much experience do they have using computers?
- How much experience do they have using similar user interfaces?
° Capabilities
- With what styles do they approach their work?
- How do they learn new systems?
° Motivations
- How will the new product affect their work routine?
- How will the new product affect their productivity?
° Desires
- How would they like to use the product?
- What kinds of features would they like to see in the product?

We found out that salespeople:

° Are not experienced in using computers
° Are not interested in programming computers
° Vary in their ability and interest in learning new procedures
° Use varied techniques to sell cars
° Are competitive
° Are knowledgeable about the products they sell
° Want to be able to communicate with their customers while they use the product.

After analyzing the characteristics of our product's intended users, we realized that our product's interface must:

° Be easy to learn
° Be flexible enough to serve users with different approaches to both learning and sales
° Contain elements resembling those already used in a salesperson's job
° Contain terms that are familiar to a salesperson
° Be sophisticated enough to withstand scrutiny of people who are knowledgeable about their field
° Be appropriate to be seen by a customer.

We also needed to learn about the tasks the users perform in their jobs. With the help of our expert salesperson, we drew an organization chart for a typical car dealership. The organization is shown in Figure 85.

 

Figure 85. Typical Automobile Dealership Organization

We compiled a list of the dealership's personnel and of the main tasks that each person performs. Figure 86 shows the list of tasks.

 ________________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 86. Users and Tasks in a Car Dealership 			       |
|______________________________________________________________________________|
| Users and Tasks 			| Users and Tasks 		      |
|_______________________________________|______________________________________|
| Owner, President 			| General Manager 		       |
| 					|				       |
| ° Meets with manufacturer's 	 	| ° Hires dealership personnel 	       |
|   representatives 			| 				       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Manages dealership personnel 	| ° Sets guidelines for profit margins |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Studies market trends and forecasts | ° Determines pack fees (fees added to| 	
|					|   dealer invoice) 		       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Examines accounting reports. 	| ° Sets labor costs for service.      |
|_______________________________________|______________________________________|
| New Car Sales Manager 		| Used Car Sales Manager 	       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Orders new cars and trucks 		| ° Reviews the National Automobile    |
|					|   Dealers Association (NADA) values  |
| 					|   for comparable cars		       |
| ° Reviews statistics of vehicles sold | 				       |
| 					| ° Sets prices for used cars	       |
| ° Hires and manages salespeople 	| 				       |
| 					| ° Determines condition and value of  |
| ° Approves sales.			|   trade-ins. 			       |
|_______________________________________|______________________________________|
| Salesperson 				| Finance Manager		       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Sells cars and trucks 		| ° Prints sales contracts 	       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Maintains preferred customer lists	| ° Finds financing for customers      |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Reads used car sheets ("cards") 	| ° Manages manufacturer's financing   |
|					|  programs 			      |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Writes follow-up letters. 		| ° Sells extended warranties, debt    |
|					|   insurance, and roadside services.  |
|_______________________________________|______________________________________|
| Office Manager 			| Fleet Manager			       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Manages office personnel 		| ° Orders fleets of cars and trucks   |
|					|  for customers 		      |
| 					|				       |
| ° Handles titles and transfers,	| ° Negotiates with purchasing agents  |
|   registration, loan payoffs with	|   at customers' businesses	       | 	
|   banks 				|				       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Submits paperwork required by law 	| ° Keeps track of customers' business |
|					|   inventories (quantity, age)	       |
| ° Works with the dealership's lawyer. | 				       |
| 					| ° Estimates life span of customers'  |
|					|  fleets.			      |
|_______________________________________|______________________________________|
| Parts Manager 			| Parts Personnel		       |
| 					|				       |
| ° Orders parts and sets prices for 	| ° Selects parts from shelves 	       |
|   parts 				| 				      |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Manages parts counter 		| ° Unpacks boxes of new parts and     |
|					|   stocks shelves		       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Updates parts inventory 		| ° Updates parts inventory	       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Compares parts to service order. 	| ° Compares parts to service order.   |
|_______________________________________|______________________________________|
| Service Manager 			| Service Writer 		       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Sells service 			| ° Sells service 		       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Runs service specials 		| ° Writes a service order	       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Trains mechanics 			| ° Determines warranty work.	       |
| 					|				       |
| ° Handles service orders 		| 				       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Gives cost estimates for parts and	|				       |
|   labor. 				|				       |
|_______________________________________|______________________________________|
| Mechanic 				| Lot Attendant 		       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Fixes cars 				| ° Matches manufacturer's invoice to  |
|					|  dealer's invoice and adds dealer's  |
| ° Records time and parts used		|  invoice to window 		       |
| 					| 				       |
| ° Reads service bulletins and service	| ° Installs after-market options      |
|   manuals.				|   (stereos, pinstriping) 	       |
| 					| 				       |
| 					| ° Prepares new and used cars (washes |
|					|   cars, removes plastic, installs    | 
|					|  hubcaps, checks tire pressure).    |
|_______________________________________|______________________________________|

Because our sample product will be used during the process of selling cars, we looked at a salesperson's tasks in more detail.

In a typical sales transaction, a customer enters a showroom and inquires about a car or several cars. The salesperson in turn asks the customer what features and price range the customer is looking for. Using the information the customer provides, the salesperson gathers information about the dealership's cars that match the customer's requirements. The salesperson then presents the information to the customer.

If a car appeals to the customer, the customer takes the car for a test drive. If the customer still is interested in the car after the test drive, the salesperson and customer negotiate about the financial arrangements. They use a worksheet to record the details of the proposed purchase. Once they come to an agreement, the salesperson takes the worksheet with the agreed-to figures to the sales manager for approval. If the sales manager approves the sale, the salesperson passes the
worksheet along to the finance manager. Figure 87 lists the tasks of the salesperson, the sales manager, and the finance manager.

 ________________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 87. Tasks Involved in Selling a Car 				       |
|______________________________________________________________________________|
| Users 		| Tasks 					       |
|_______________________|______________________________________________________|
 | Salesperson 		|						    |
| 			| 						       |
| 			| ° Finds out what the customer wants, needs, and can  |
| 			|   afford 					       |
| 			| 						       |
| 			| ° Finds out what products the car dealership can     |
| 			| provide that most closely match the customer's       |
| 			| wants, needs, and budget. 			       |
| 			| 						       |
| 			| ° Fills out a worksheet that lists the: 	       |
| 			| 						       |
| 			| - Make and model of car 			       |
| 			| - Price of the car 				       |
| 			| - Trade-in value of the customer's old car (if       |
| 			|   applicable)					       |
| 			| - Down payment amount (if applicable). 	       |
| 			| 						       |
| 			| ° Gets the sales manager's approval. 		       |
| 			| 						       |
| 			| ° Gives the worksheet information to the finance     |
| 			|   manager.					       |
|______________________________________________________________________________|
| Sales Manager 	| ° Reviews worksheet and authorizes sales after       |
| 			|   considering: 				       |
| 			| 						       |
| 			| - Agreed-to price				       |
| 			| - Trade-in value				       |
| 			| - Options. 					       |
|_______________________|______________________________________________________|
| Finance Manager 	| ° Arranges financing for customer		       |
| 			| ° Completes the sale.				       |
|_______________________|______________________________________________________|

1.6.2.3 Step 3. Matching Management's Requirements to the Users' Tasks

After gathering requirements from management and analyzing the users' tasks, we had to match the requirements and the tasks. We realized that our product's interface had to provide:

° A way to record information about a customer (thus meeting the requirement to eliminate paperwork)
° Quick access to information about the dealership's stock of cars (thus meeting the requirements to reduce errors and to reduce time spent tracking down information)
° A way to combine customer information with dealership information (thus meeting the requirement to eliminate paperwork)
° A way to quickly transfer information among users--salespeople, sales manager, finance manager--without leaving the customer unattended (thus meeting the requirements to reduce paperwork and increase contact time).

1.6.3 Designing the Product


After we completed our research and planning, we began designing the product. First we designed our intended users' model; that is, we took the information we had learned about salespeople and used it to create a model that describes the way the salespeople would understand how the product works. Then we defined the objects, their relationships, and their behaviors, and we decided what kinds of views were needed to allow the salespeople to work with the objects. Then we designed the menus and choices for the objects, and finally, we designed the windows that contained the views and controls through which the salespeople could work with the objects.

1.6.3.1 Step 1. Defining the Objects

Our analysis of a salesperson's tasks gave us the base of information we needed to start defining objects for our product. At this stage of design, we were interested in what objects a user needs, how the objects are related, and how the objects behave.

1.6.3.1.2 Determining the Relationships and Behaviors of the Objects

Once we had determined which objects we needed, we had to determine how each object interacted with the other objects.

We drew a diagram to show the relationships among the objects.

 

Figure 89. Relationships among the Car Dealership Objects

Then we considered the flow of information among the objects. To complete a worksheet, a salesperson combines information from a car object and a customer object. While we did not want to prevent a salesperson from typing or re-typing all of the information contained in those objects, we knew that typing is slow and can lead to errors. We knew we could provide a quicker and more accurate way to transfer the information by allowing a salesperson to manipulate the information directly--that is, by dragging the customer and car objects to the worksheet objects--or indirectly, by using action choices that allow the salesperson to copy information from one object and place it into another.

Once a worksheet is complete, a salesperson must get approval from the sales manager and then must send the worksheet to the finance manager to close the sale. One solution might have been to allow the salesperson to print a copy of the worksheet and carry it in person to the managers. However, one of the requirements we received from the dealership's upper management was to eliminate paperwork, so we decided that electronic mail offered the most efficient paperless solution. Also, by sending the worksheet electronically, the salesperson can stay in contact with the customer instead of leaving the customer alone while the salesperson locates the appropriate manager.

We had to decide what the results of direct manipulation would be for various combinations of source objects and target objects. In particular, we were interested in whether data should transfer from one object to another when a salesperson drags a source object to a target object. Based on the relationships we defined, we created the following table to illustrate the default results of direct manipulation of pairs of objects.


 ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 90. Default Results for Direct Manipulation. For certain pairs of objects, data is transferred from one |
| object to the other when a salesperson drags it and drops it on the other. |
|____________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________|
| | Target Object |
| |____________ _____________ ____________ ____________ _____________ ____________ ____________ ____________|
| Source | 	    | Customer  | 	| 	  | 	      |Worksheet | Finance | Sales |
| Object | Customer | List 	| Car 	| Car Lot | Worksheet | List      | Manager | Manager |
| 	| 	    | 		| 	| 	  | 	       | 	  | Out-Basket | Out-Basket |
 |__________|____________|_______|_______|_________|____________|__________|____________|____________|
| Customer | No data 	| Customer is | No data | No data | Customer | No data | Customer | Customer |
 | | transfer | moved into | transfer | transfer | data is | transfer | data is | data is |
 | | | customer | | | copied into | | copied and | copied and |
 | | | list | | | worksheet | | sent to | sent to |
 | | | | | | | | finance | sales |
 | | | | | | | | manager | manager |
 |____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|____________|
 | Customer | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data |
 | List | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer |
 |____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|____________|
 | Car | No data | No data | No data | Car is | Car data is | No data | No data | No data |
 | | transfer | transfer | transfer | moved into | copied into | transfer | transfer | transfer |
 | | | | | car lot | worksheet | | | |
 |____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|____________|
 | Car Lot | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data |
 | | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer |
 |____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|____________|
 | Worksheet | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | Worksheet | Worksheet | Worksheet |
 | | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | is moved | data is | data is |
 | | | | | | | into | copied and | copied and |
 | | | | | | | worksheet | sent to | sent to |
 | | | | | | | list | finance | sales |
 | | | | | | | | manager | manager |
 |____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|____________|
 | Worksheet | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data | No data |
 | List | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer | transfer |
 |____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|_____________|____________|____________|____________|

1.6.3.1.1 Determining What Kinds of Objects Are Needed

To decide what objects a salesperson needed, we looked at the real-world objects a salesperson used to sell a car. We wrote a description of a salesperson's tasks and underlined all the nouns:

° Find out the customer's wants, needs, and budget.
° Find out what the car dealership has in stock that most closely matches the customer's wants, needs, and budget.
° Arrive at an agreement using a worksheet.
° Get approval from the sales manager.
° Give the worksheet information to the finance manager.

After underlining the nouns, we made a list of them:

° Salesperson
° Customer
° Wants
° Needs
° Budget
° Agreement
° Worksheet
° Car
° Dealership
° Stock
° Sales manager
° Finance manager.

To create our final list of objects, we edited the list of nouns to eliminate duplication and to combine those concepts that seemed to fit together. We ended up with this list of objects:

° Car
° Car lot (the entire collection of individual cars available for sale)
° Customer (including the customer's wants, needs, and budget)
° Customer list (the entire collection of individual customers)
° Worksheet (the commonly used term for the agreement)
° Worksheet list (the entire collection of individual worksheets)
° Salesperson
° Sales manager
° Finance manager.

These objects are described in the following sections.

Car Object: Each car object represents a real car for sale in the car lot. A car object contains descriptive information about the corresponding real car, such as its year, make, model, price, factory-installed options, color, and vehicle identification number (VIN). Because the primary purpose of a car object is to convey information, the car object is a data object.

Car Lot Object: The car lot object represents the physical lot where the dealership's cars are parked. Because the primary purpose of a car lot object is to hold car objects, the car lot object is a container object. A typical dealership sells new cars and used cars. The two kinds of cars are often parked in different lots. To make our product seem more familiar to users, we provided two car lot objects: a new car lot and a used car lot. Our sample product uses only the new car lot, but a fully developed product for a dealership would use both car lot objects.

Customer Object: Each customer object represents a real customer who has inquired about a car. A customer object contains descriptive information about the corresponding real customer, such as the customer's name, address, telephone number, and identification number. Because the primary purpose of a customer object is to convey information, the customer object is a data object.

Customer List Object: The customer list object contains all of the customer objects, much as the car lot object contains all of the car objects. It is a container object.

Worksheet Object: A worksheet object contains information about the customer and the car to be purchased, along with other information, such as the financial arrangements of the purchase. A worksheet object is a data object.

Worksheet List Object: A worksheet list object contains all of the worksheet objects, just as the customer list object contains all of the customer objects. It is a container object.

Salesperson Object: Each salesperson object represents one of the dealership's salespeople. A salesperson object contains descriptive information about the corresponding real salesperson, such as the salesperson's name, address, sales record, commissions, and bonuses. It is a data object. Because our sample transactions take place from the salesperson's perspective, we did not need to use the salesperson object. However, in a fully designed product for a real car dealership, a salesperson object might be used for payroll or personnel tasks.

Sales Manager Object and Finance Manager Object: At first we considered creating the sales manager and the finance manager objects so that they were like the customer and salesperson objects--that is, they would contain descriptive information about each person. However, to sell a car, a salesperson does not require descriptive information about either manager. From a salesperson's perspective, a sales manager and a finance manager receive and distribute information. Because the users of our sample product are salespeople, we decided to emphasize the passing of information by representing the finance manager and the sales manager as specially tailored out-baskets for electronic mail. They are device objects that automatically send their contents to the corresponding individual.

Figure 88 shows our preliminary drawing of these objects.

Figure 88. Hand Drawing of Users' Objects. The drawing indicates how the objects might appear on a salesperson's screen. We later realized that the sales manager object and the finance manager object could be represented differently, in a way that more accurately conveyed the nature of a salesperson's transactions with the real managers.

1.6.3.2 Step 2. Determining the Necessary Views

Once we had identified and defined the objects, we had to determine which kinds of views would give the salespeople the best access to the objectsand the information they contain. In determining the views needed, weconsidered the ways in which a salesperson would interact with each objectand its information. We also provided a help view for each object.

1.6.3.2.1 Views of the Car Object

Both a salesperson and a customer need to know general information about a car, and a salesperson needs a way to work with the information. We decided that the best way to present the information would be a combination of textual information and graphical information. The text would describe the make, model, and year of the car. The graphic would be a picture of the car. We drew a sketch of a proposed General Information view of a car.

 

Figure 91. Hand-Drawn Version of General Information View of a Car Object

1.6.3.2.2 Views of the Car Lot Object

Because the car lot is a container, we knew we had to provide at least the two standard contents views: an icons view and a details view. For the icons view, we decided to group vehicles according to type, and we decided to represent each type of vehicle with a different icon. Figure 92 shows our initial sketch of an icons view of the car lot.

Figure 92. Hand-Drawn Version of an Icons View of the Car Lot

In a dealership that does not use computers in the process of selling cars, a salesperson typically searches manually through a file or listing of the cars available on the car lot. When a customer is ready for a test drive, a salesperson has to walk through the real car lot to locate the car. We decided that a more efficient approach would be to offer a salesperson several ways to look for particular cars available for sale, and we wanted to let the computer, rather than the salesperson, do the actual searching for available cars.

Because a customer is typically interested in only certain cars in the car lot, we decided to provide a way for a salesperson to specify criteria for which cars to include in either contents view of the car lot. We added a feature to the contents views to allow a salesperson to filter the view so that it displays only the cars that have the features the customer wants. (See "The Window for the Filtering Feature" in topic 1.6.3.4.2 for more details.) By using this feature, a salesperson can filter the view of the cars according to:

° Year
° Make and model
° Color
° Price range
° Installed features.

We decided that once a salesperson has filtered the view so that only certain kinds of cars are displayed, the salesperson might also want to sort the displayed cars according to the same kinds of criteria. (See "The Window for the Sorting Feature" in topic 1.6.3.4.2 for more details.)

Finally, we decided to provide a Map view that showed the positions of the real cars on the real car lot. The Map view is a composed view of the car lot. It saves the salesperson and customer time by pinpointing the location of the car that the customer wants to test drive.

The settings view for the car lot object provides a way for a user to change the appearance of some aspects of the car lot object. For example, a user can change the size of the icons that represent the car objects.

1.6.3.2.3 Views of the Customer Object

The general information associated with each customer includes the customer's

° Name
° Address (street, city, state, ZIP code)
° Phone numbers
° Identification number
° Driver's license number
° Date of birth.

Additional information associated with a customer might include detailed financial information, such as the customer's

° Assets
- House
- Car
- Stocks
- Savings
- Income
° Debts
- Rent or mortgage payments
- Consumer loans
- Credit card balance and credit limit.

This kind of information can be thought of as a customer's attributes or "settings," so we decided to provide a settings view. Settings views can be displayed well in a notebook. Figure 93 shows our initial sketch of  the notebook for the customer object.

 

Figure 93. Hand-Drawn Version of the Customer Window

1.6.3.2.4 Views of the Customer List Object

The customer list is a container object; therefore it needed at least an icons view and a details view. We also decided to provide a mechanism called the Include Customers window that allows a salesperson to filter and sort the customer objects. Because the views of the customer list are similar to the contents and settings views of the car lot, we do not describe them further here.

1.6.3.2.5 Views of the Worksheet Object

Because the worksheet object is where customer information and car information is combined, we knew we had to design a view that displays the same kind of information that the car and customer objects contain. Figure 94 shows our initial sketch of the worksheet object.

 

Figure 94. Hand-Drawn Version of Worksheet

1.6.3.2.6 Views of the Worksheet List Object

The worksheet list, like the customer list and the car lot, is a container object. We provided the usual contents views: an icons view and a details view. We also decided to provide a mechanism called the Include Worksheets window that allows a salesperson, finance manager, or sales  manager to filter and sort the worksheet objects. Because the views of the worksheet list are similar to the contents and settings views of the car lot and the customer list, we do not describe them further here.

1.6.3.3 Step 3. Designing the Menus

We consulted Part 2, "CUA Reference" for information about the standard CUA menus. To determine the product-specific choices we needed for our product, we considered how the object behaviors we had defined corresponded to the views we had decided upon. We also considered the relationships between various users and the objects. For example, a salesperson is not responsible for placing real cars into or removing real cars from the real car lot. To make our sample product seem more like the real world that the users are familiar with, we restricted the salesperson's access to the car lot object by providing a limited set of choices in the menus for the car lot object. A salesperson is allowed to view information about a car object in the car lot object but cannot add or remove car objects. In a fully designed product, some other person, perhaps a lot attendant or a sales manager, would have access to the car lot object to add or remove cars. However, because a salesperson is in the best position to know whether a customer is seriously interested in a car, the salesperson is allowed to create a new worksheet object and add it to or remove it from the worksheet list object.

The following sections discuss the menus for the objects.

1.6.3.3.1 The System Menu

When it is provided, the system menu is displayed from the system menu symbol at the upper left corner of a window. It contains choices that allow a user to work with a window itself. The following table describes the system menu choices.

 _______________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 95. Choices in the System Menu 				      |
|_____________________________________________________________________________|
| Choice 	   | Purpose						      |
|__________________|__________________________________________________________|
| Restore 	   | Returns a window to its previous size		      |
|__________________|__________________________________________________________|
| Move 		   | Allows a user to move a window to a different location on|
|		   | the workplace 					      |
|__________________|__________________________________________________________|
| Size 		   | Allows a user to change the size of a window	      |
|__________________|__________________________________________________________|
| Minimize or Hide | Removes a window from the workplace. Minimize displays a |
|		   | graphic of a minimized window. Hide does not.	     |
|__________________|__________________________________________________________|
| Maximize 	   | Increases a window to its largest possible size	      |
|__________________|__________________________________________________________|
| Close 	   | Closes a window and all secondary windows associated     | 
|		   | with it						      |
|__________________|__________________________________________________________|
| Window list 	   | Displays a window containing a list of all windows open  |
|		   | on the workplace					      |
|__________________|__________________________________________________________|
| Split 	   | Allows a user to split a window into two or more panes   |
|		   | or to resize existing panes			      |
|__________________|__________________________________________________________|

1.6.3.3.2 Menus for the Car Object

From a salesperson's perspective, most of the information about a car object is fixed--that is, the information is based on a real-world object and cannot be changed unless something changes about the real-world object. For example, it would not make sense to allow a salesperson to change the color of a car object, because its color corresponds to the color of the real car that the car object represents. Because a salesperson can change little about a car object, the car object has only a few menus, and the menus contain relatively few choices. Figure 96 shows the menus for the General Information view of the car object. For an illustration of the complete window, see Figure 108 in topic 1.6.3.4.1.

 

Figure 96. Menus for the General Information View of the Car Object

The table below describes the menu choices for the car object.

 .
_______________________________________________________________________________
| Figure 97. Menus for the Car Object 					      |
|_____________________________________________________________________________|
| Menu 	  | Choice	| Purpose					      |
|_________|_____________|_____________________________________________________|
| Car 	  | Open as 	| Allows a salesperson to open another window for the | 
|	  | General 	| same car object. Because there is only one view for |
| 	  | Information | the car object, the name of the view (General       |
| 	  | 		| Information) is part of the name of this choice.    |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| 	  | Print 	| Allows the salesperson to print the information     |
|	  |		| about the car					       |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| Edit 	  | Undo 	| Undoes the salesperson's last action		       |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| 	  | Redo 	| Redoes the last action that the salesperson undid    |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| 	  | Copy 	| Stores a copy of the selected car object on the      |
|	  |		| clipboard					       |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| 	  | Find...     | Displays a window that contains controls that allow  |
|	  |		| a salesperson to search for specific car information |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| Windows | Window list | Displays a window containing a list of other windows | 
|	  |		| that have been opened from this car object, from    |
|	  |		| other objects associated with this car object, and  |
|	  |		| from other windows associated with the car	       |
|	  |		| dealership product				       |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| Help 	  | Help index	| Displays a window containing an index of all of the  |
|	  | 		| help information available for the car object	       |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| 	  | General help| Displays a window containing help information about |
|	  |		| the tasks a salesperson can accomplish in the       |
|	  |		| window for the car object			       |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| 	  | Using help	| Displays a window containing an explanation of how   | 
|	  |		| to retrieve and use help information		       |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
|	  | Tutorial	| Displays a window containing help information about |
|	  |		| how to use the product			       |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
|	  | Product	| Displays a window containing information such as the|
|	  | information	| product's version number and copyright notice.       |
|_________|_____________|______________________________________________________|

1.6.3.3.3 Menus for the Car Lot Object

Figure 98 illustrates the menus and choices we decided upon for the Icons view of the car lot object. The menu bar choices are the same for the Details, Settings, and Map views, so those views are not shown here. These menus and choices allow a salesperson to interact with the information displayed in the views. Because a salesperson cannot change the contents of the car lot except by selling a car, the menus contain no choices that allow a salesperson to add cars to or remove cars from the car lot. For an illustration of the complete window, see Figure 109 in topic 1.6.3.4.2.

 

Figure 98. Menus for the Icons View of the Car Lot Object

The following table describes the menu choices for the car lot object.

 _________________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 99. Menus for the Car Lot Object					|
|_______________________________________________________________________________|
| Menu 	   | Choice	| Purpose					      | |__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Car Lot  | Open as ÿ 	| Allows a salesperson to open a new window containing  |
| 	   | 		| a different view of the same object. The Open as ÿ   |
|	   |		| choice leads to a cascaded menu that contains the     |
| 	   |		| names of the views available.			       | |__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Print      | Allows a salesperson to print a list of cars in the  |
|	   |		| car lot					       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Selected | Open as	| Opens a new window containing the general information | 
|	   | General	| view of the selected car. Because this is the only    |
| 	   | Information| view available, it does not appear in a cascaded menu.| |__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Print 	| Allows the salesperson to print the general		|
|	   |		|information for the selected car		       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Edit 	   | Undo 	| Undoes the salesperson's last action			| |__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Redo 	| Redoes the last action that the salesperson undid     | |__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Copy 	| Stores a copy of the selected object on the clipboard | |__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Find... 	| Displays a window that contains controls that allow a |
|	   |		| salesperson to search for a specific type of car      | |__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Select all | Selects all of the car objects in the car lot at once | |__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Deselect all| Deselects all of the car objects that were	        |
|	   |		| previously selected in the car lot		       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| View     | Icons 	| Displays the contents of the car lot object as icons  | |__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Details 	| Displays the contents of the car lot object as rows   |
|	   |		| and columns of related information		       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Settings	| Displays the settings for the car lot object	        |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Map 	| Displays the contents of the car lot object as a map  |
|	   |		| of the car lot, with each car icon in a location that |
|	   |		| corresponds to the place where the real car is parked | |__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Sort... 	| Displays a window that allows a salesperson to       |
|	   |		| specify the criteria that determine the order in     |
|	   |		| which the cars are displayed			       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Include... | Displays a window that allows a salesperson to       |
|	   |		| specify the criteria that determine which cars are   |
|	   |		| displayed					       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Refreshÿ 	| Displays a cascaded menu containing the choices On    |
|	   |		| and Off, which allow the salesperson to choose       |
|	   |		| whether to continually update the view of the car lot |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Refresh now| Causes the view of the car lot to be updated		|
|	   |		| immediately to reflect any changes in the ca	       |
|	   |		| inventory since the last time the view was refreshed  |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Windows  | Window list| Displays a window containing a list of other windows |
|	   |		| that have been opened from this car lot object, from  |
|	   |		| other objects associated with this car lot object,	|
|	   |		| and from other windows associated with the car	|
|	   |		| dealership product				       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Help     | Help index | Displays a window containing an index of all of the	|
|	   |		| help information available for the car lot object	|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | General	| Displays a window containing help information about  |
|	   | help	| the tasks a salesperson can accomplish in the window  | |	   |		| for the car lot object			       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Using help | Displays a window containing an explanation of how to |
|	   |		| retrieve and use help information		       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Tutorial 	| Displays a window containing help information about  |
|	   |		| how to use the product			       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Product	| Displays a window containing information such as    |
|	   | information| the product's version number and copyright notice.   |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|

1.6.3.3.4 Menus for the Customer Object

Figure 100 illustrates the menus and choices for the Personal Information view of the customer object. The choices are described in the following table. For an illustration of the complete window, see Figure 117 in topic 1.6.3.4.3.

 

Figure 100. Menus for the Personal Information View of the Customer Object

 .
_________________________________________________________________________________
| Figure 101. Menus for the Customer Object				        |
|_______________________________________________________________________________|
| Menu 	   | Choice 	| Purpose					       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Customer | Open as 	| Allows a salesperson to open another window for the   |
|	   | Personal	| same customer object. Because there is only one view |
|	   | Information| for the customer object, the name of the view	       |
|	   |		| (Personal Information) is part of the name of this  |
|	   |		| choice.					       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Print 	| Allows the salesperson to print the information      |
|	   |		| about the customer				       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Send... 	| Allows the salesperson to send customer information |
|	   |		| to another user				       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
| Edit	   | Undo 	| Undoes the salesperson's last action		       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Redo	| Redoes the last action that the salesperson undid    |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Cut 	| Removes the selected object from the window and      | 
|	   |		| stores it on the clipboard			       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Copy 	| Stores a copy of the selected object on the clipboard|
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Create 	| Makes a new object from the selected object and      |
|	   |		| stores the new object on the clipboard	       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Paste 	| Places a copy of the contents of the clipboard into |
|	   |		| the customer object at a user-specified location     |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Clear 	| Removes the selected object from the customer object |
|	   |		| without compressing the space the object occupied    |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Find... 	| Displays a window that contains controls that allow |
|	   |		| a salesperson to search for specific customer       |
|	   |		| information					       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Select all	| Selects all of the information in the window	       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Deselect all| Deselects all of the information in the window      |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
| Windows  | Window list| Displays a window containing a list of other windows |
|	   |		| that have been opened from this customer object,     |
|	   |		| from other objects associated with this customer    |
|	   |		| object, and from other windows associated with the  |
|	   |		| car dealership product			       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
| Help     | Help index | Displays a window containing an index of all of the  |
|	   |		| help information available for the customer object   |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | General	| Displays a window containing help information about  |
|	   | help 	| the tasks a salesperson can accomplish in the        | 
|	   |		| window for the customer object		       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Using help | Displays a window containing an explanation of how  |
|	   |		| to retrieve and use help information		       | |__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Tutorial	| Displays a window containing help information about |
|	   |		| how to use the product			       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|
|	   | Product	| Displays a window containing information such as the |
| 	   | information| product's version number and copyright notice.       |
|__________|____________|______________________________________________________|

1.6.3.3.5 Menus for the Customer List Object

Figure 102 illustrates the menus and choices for the Icons view of the customer list object. The menu bar choices are the same for the Details and Settings views, so those views are not shown here. The menu choices are described in the following table. For an illustration of the complete window, see Figure 128 in topic 1.6.4.1.

 

Figure 102. Menus for the Icons View of the Customer List Object

 _________________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 103. Menus for the Customer List Object				|
|_______________________________________________________________________________|
| Menu 	   | Choice	 | Purpose					      |
|__________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| Folder   | Open as ÿ 	 | Allows a salesperson to open a new window containing |
|	   |		 | a different view of the customer list object. The    |
|	   |		 | Open as ÿ choice leads to a cascaded menu that      |
|	   |		 | contains the names of the views available.		|
|__________|_____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Print 	 | Allows a salesperson to print a list of customers in |
|	   | 		 | the customer list				       |
|__________|_____________|______________________________________________________|
| Selected | Open as	 | Opens a new window containing the personal		|
|	   | Personal	 | information view of the selected customer. Because   |
|	   | Information | this is the only view available for the customer    |
|	   |		  | object, the choice does not appear in a cascaded  |
|	   |		  | menu.					       |
|__________|______________|_____________________________________________________|
|	   | Print 	  | Allows the salesperson to print the general		|
|	   |		  | information for the selected customer		|
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Send... 	  | Allows the salesperson to send customer information |
|	   |		  | to another user				       |
|__________|______________|_____________________________________________________|
| Edit	   | Undo 	  | Undoes the salesperson's last action 		|
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Redo	  | Redoes the last action that the salesperson undid   |
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Cut	  | Removes the selected object from the window and     |
|	   |		  |  stores it on the clipboard			       |
|__________|___________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Copy 	  | Stores a copy of the selected object on the	       |
|	   |		  | clipboard					       |
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Create	  | Makes a new object from the selected object and	|
|	   |		  | stores the new object on the clipboard	       |
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Paste 	  | Places a copy of the contents of the clipboard into |
|	   |		  | the customer list at a user-specified location	|
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Clear 	  | Removes the selected object from the customer list  |
|	   |		  | without compressing the space the object occupied	|
|__________|_____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Find... 	  | Displays a window that contains controls that allow |
|	   |		  | a salesperson to search for specific information in |
|	   |		  | the customer list				       |
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Select all	  | Selects all of the information in the window        |
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Deselect all | Deselects all of the information in the window      |
|__________|_______________________|____________________________________________|
| View	   | Icons 	  | Displays the contents of the customer list as icons |
|__________|___________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Details	  | Displays the contents of the customer list as rows  |
|	   |		  | and columns of related information		       |
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Settings 	  | Displays the settings for the customer list		|
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Sort	  | Displays a window that allows a salesperson to	|
|	   |		  | specify the criteria that determine the order in    |
|	   |		  | which the customers are displayed		       |
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Include...	  | Displays a window that allows a salesperson to      |
|	   |		  | specify the criteria that determine which customers |
|	   |		  | are displayed				       |
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Refreshÿ	  | Displays a cascaded menu containing the choices On  |
|	   |		  | and Off, which allow the salesperson to choose      |
|	   |		  | whether to continually update the view of the      |
|	   |		  | customer list				       |
|__________|____________________________________________________________________|
|	   | Refresh now  | Causes the view of the customer list to be updated  |
|	   |		  | immediately to reflect any changes in the customers |
|	   |		  | since the last time the view was refreshed		|
|__________|______________|_____________________________________________________|
| Windows  | Window list  | Displays a window containing a list of other        |
|	   |		  | windows that have been opened from this customer    |
|	   |		  | list, from other objects associated with this       |
|	   |		  | customer list, and from other windows associated   |
|	   | 		  | with the car dealership product		       |
|__________|______________|_____________________________________________________|
| Help	   | Help index   | Displays a window containing an index of all of the |
|	   |		  | help information available for the customer list    |
|__________|______________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | General help | Displays a window containing help information about |
|	   |		  | the tasks a salesperson can accomplish in the       |
|	   |		  | window for the customer list		       |
|__________|______________|_____________________________________________________|
|	   | Using help   | Displays a window containing an explanation of how  |
|	   |		  | to retrieve and use help information	       |
|__________|______________|_____________________________________________________|
|	   | Tutorial     | Displays a window containing help information about |
|	   | 		  | how to use the product			       |
|__________|______________|_____________________________________________________|
|	   | Product 	  | Displays a window containing information such as	|
|	   | information  | the product's version number and copyright notice.	|
|__________|______________|_____________________________________________________|

1.6.3.3.6 Menus for the Worksheet Object

Figure 104 illustrates the menus and choices for the Worksheet view of the worksheet object. The menu choices are described in the following table. For an illustration of the complete window, see Figure 133 in topic 1.6.4.1.

 

Figure 104. Menus for the Summary View of the Worksheet Object

 .
_________________________________________________________________________________
| Figure 105. Menus for the Worksheet Object					|
|_______________________________________________________________________________|
| Menu	    | Choice	| Purpose					       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
| Worksheet | Open as 	| Allows a salesperson to open another window for the   |
|	    | Worksheet | same worksheet object. The window opens to a		|
|	    |		| worksheet view.				       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
| 	    | Open as	| Allows a salesperson to open another window for the  |
|	    | Settings	| same worksheet object. The window opens to a settings |
|	    |		| view.						       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Print	| Allows the salesperson to print the worksheet		|
|	    |		| information					       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Send...	| Allows the salesperson to send worksheet information  |
|	    |		| to another user				       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
| Edit	    | Undo	| Undoes the salesperson's last action			|
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Redo	| Redoes the last action that the salesperson undid	|
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Cut	| Removes the selected object from the window and       |
|	    |		| stores it on the clipboard			       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Copy	| Stores a copy of the selected object on the clipboard	|
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Create	| Makes a new object from the selected object          |
|	    |		| and stores the new object on the clipboard	       |
|___________|___________|______________________________________________________|
|	    | Paste	| Places a copy of the contents of the clipboard into | 
|	    |		| the worksheet object at a user-specified location    |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Clear	| Removes the selected object from the worksheet       |
|	    |		| object without compressing the space the objec	|
|	    |		| occupied					       |
|___________|___________|______________________________________________________|
|	    | Find...	| Displays a window that contains controls that allow  |
|	    |		| a salesperson to search for specific worksheet       |
|	    |		| information					       |
|___________|___________|______________________________________________________|
|	    | Select all | Selects all of the information in the window        |
|_______________________|______________________________________________________|
|	    | Deselect all | Deselects all of the information in the window    |
|___________|___________|______________________________________________________|
| View	    | Worksheet | Displays the worksheet object opened to the	       |
|	    |		| worksheet section of the notebook		       |
|___________|___________|______________________________________________________|
|	    | Settings	| Displays the settings for the worksheet object |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Refreshÿ	| Displays a cascaded menu containing the choices On    |
|	    |		| and Off, which allow the salesperson to choose        |
|	    |		| whether to continually update the view of the		|
|	    |		|worksheet object				       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Refresh	| Causes the view of the worksheet object to be         |
|	    | now	| updated immediately to reflect any changes in        |
|	    | 		| the worksheet since the last time the view was        |
|	    |		| refreshed					       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
| Windows   | Window	| Displays a window containing a list of other windows |
|	    | list	| that have been opened from this worksheet object,     |
|	    |		| from other objects associated with this worksheet     |
|	    |		| object, and from other windows associated with the car|
|	    |		| dealership product				       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
| Help	    | Help index| Displays a window containing an index of all of the   |
|	    |		| help information available for the worksheet object   |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | General	| Displays a window containing help information about   |
|	    | help	| the tasks a salesperson can accomplish in the window  |
|	    |		| for the worksheet object			       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Using help| Displays a window containing an explanation of how to |
|	    | 		| retrieve and use help information		       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Tutorial | Displays a window containing help information about   |
|	    |		| how to use the product			       |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|
|	    | Product	| Displays a window containing information such as      |
|	    |information| the product's version number and copyright notice.    |
|___________|___________|_______________________________________________________|

1.6.3.3.7 Menus for the Worksheet List Object

Figure 106 illustrates the menus and choices for the Icons view of the worksheet list object. The menu bar choices are the same for the Details and Settings views, so those views are not shown here. The menu choices are described in the following table. For an illustration of the complete window, see Figure 132 in topic 1.6.4.1.

 

Figure 106. Menus for the Icons View of the Worksheet List Object

 _________________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 107. Menus for the Worksheet List Object				|
|_______________________________________________________________________________|
| Menu	   | Choice	| Purpose					       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Folder   | Open as ÿ	| Allows a salesperson to open a new window containing  |
|	   |		| a different view of the worksheet list. The Open as ÿ |
|	   |		| choice leads to a cascaded menu that contains the     |
|	   |		| names of the views available.			       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Print	| Allows a salesperson to print a list of worksheets in |
|	   |		| the worksheet list				       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Selected | Open as	| Allows a salesperson to open a window or windows for |
|	   | Worksheet  | the selected worksheet object or objects.. The window |
|	   |		| or windows open to a worksheet view.		       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Open as	| Allows a salesperson to open a window or windows for |
|	   | Settings 	| the selected worksheet object or objects. The window |
|	   |		| or windows open to a settings view.		       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Print	| Allows the salesperson to print the selected worksheet|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Send...	| Allows the salesperson to send a copy of a worksheet |
|	   |		| to another user				       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Edit	   | Undo	| Undoes the salesperson's last action			|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Redo	| Redoes the last action that the salesperson undid	|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Cut	| Removes the selected object from the window and	|
|	   | 		| stores it on the clipboard			       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Copy	| Stores a copy of the selected object on the clipboard |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Create	| Makes a new object from the selected object and	|
|	   |		| stores the new object on the clipboard		|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Paste	| Places a copy of the contents of the clipboard into	|
|	   |		| the worksheet list at a user-specified location	|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Clear	| Removes the selected object from the worksheet list	|
| 	   |		| without compressing the space the object occupied	|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Find...	| Displays a window that contains controls that allow a |
| 	   |		| salesperson to search for specific information in the |
|	   |		| worksheet list				       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Select all | Selects all of the information in the window		|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Deselect all| Deselects all of the information in the window	|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| View	   | Icons	| Displays the contents of the worksheet list as icons  |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Details	| Displays the contents of the worksheet list as rows  |
|	   |		| and columns of related information		       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| 	   | Settings	| Displays the settings for the worksheet list		|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Sort	| Displays a window that allows a salesperson to	|
|	   |		| specify the criteria that determine the order in      |
|	   |		| which the worksheets are displayed		       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Include...	| Displays a window that allows a salesperson to	|
|	   |		| specify the criteria that determine which worksheets  |
|	   |		| are displayed					       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Refreshÿ	| Displays a cascaded menu containing the choices On    |
|	   |		| and Off, which allow the salesperson to choose	|
|	   |		| whether to continually update the view of the		|
|	   |		| worksheet list				       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Refresh now| Causes the view of the worksheet list to be updated  |
|	   |		| immediately to reflect any changes in the worksheets |
|	   |		| since the last time the view was refreshed		|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Windows  | Window list| Displays a window containing a list of other windows |
|	   |		| that have been opened from this worksheet list, from |
|	   |		| other objects associated with this worksheet list,   |
|	   |		| and from other windows associated with the car	|
|	   |		| dealership product				       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
| Help	   | Help index | Displays a window containing an index of all of the   |
|	   |		| help information available for the worksheet list	|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | General	| Displays a window containing help information about  |
|	   | help	| the tasks a salesperson can accomplish in the window |
|	   |		| for the worksheet list			       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Using help	| Displays a window containing an explanation of how to |
|	   |		| retrieve and |use help information		       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Tutorial	| Displays a window containing help information about  |
|	   |		| how to use the product			       |
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|
|	   | Product	| Displays a window containing information such as the |
|	   | information| product's version number and copyright notice.	|
|__________|____________|_______________________________________________________|

1.6.3.4 Step 4. Designing the Windows

We consulted Part 2, "CUA Reference" to design the actual contents of the windows for our sample product.

The descriptions below do not contain all of the components possible in windows of products with a CUA interface; our product did not need all of them. Nor are the window designs definitive. A different group of designers might have designed windows with different components.

We considered three principle aspects of each window:

° The window frame (includes the window border, window title, the scroll bars, the system menu symbol, and the window sizing buttons)
° The menus (includes the menu bar, the pull-down menus, and any cascaded menus needed for choices in the pull-down menus)
° The contents of the window (the view).

Because our product is an example only, we did not design all of the windows for all of the objects. The designs described in the following sections are representative only; they are not comprehensive.

1.6.3.4.1 Window for the Car Object

We designed only one window for the car object, a window to display the general information view. A salesperson displays the window by opening a car object.

We used read-only fields to display the textual information, and we combined the textual information with a drawing of the car. We could have used some other kind of graphic representation, such as a video image or computer animation. Figure 108 shows the car object window.

 

Figure 108. Car Object. A general information view of a car object displays textual and graphical information that both the salesperson and the customer want to see.

1.6.3.4.2 Windows for the Car Lot Object

We designed several windows for the car lot object, including windows for displaying the contents views (icons view and details view), windows from routing choices, and a window for the composed view (the map view).

The Window for the Icons View: A salesperson displays this window by opening the car lot object. The window contains icons representing car objects. The car icon is a generic representation of a car. We considered creating a separate icon for each car model, one that closely resembled the model it represented, but we knew that many of the distinguishing features would not be easy to see even on icons of a normal size and would be indiscernible in views, such as the details view, that display small icons.

Because salespeople are competitive, we knew that we should provide a way to indicate when a car has a potential buyer. We designed a small graphic of a human figure to augment the car icon when a salesperson has an interested customer. When a car icon is augmented with the buyer figure, a salesperson can decide to speed the close of a sale so that his or her customer can make the purchase before another customer does, or the salesperson can decide to steer a customer to a different car that is not being considered by another customer. The car icon is augmented automatically by the system when a salesperson transfers car information to a worksheet or when a customer takes a car for a test drive.
Figure 109 shows the window for the icons view of the car lot object. The icons of the Hutton Sapphire, the Hutton GT, and the Watson Faser are augmented.

Figure 109. Window Displaying the Icons View of the Car Lot Object. Each icon represents one car in the car lot. Three of the six icons are augmented.

The Window for the Details View: This window can be displayed by opening the car lot object to a details view or by selecting the Details choice from the View menu.

In the details view we wanted to display the most frequently used information about each car, so we arranged the year, make, model, price, number of buyers, and vehicle identification number (VIN) in columns. Then we placed a column heading over each column of data to identify the items in that column. We designed the window so that the column headings are in a different part of the window than the list of cars. This design allows a salesperson to scroll the list of cars vertically without losing sight of the headings. However, when the salesperson scrolls the list horizontally, the headings scroll with the columns. Otherwise the headings would be displayed over the wrong columns.

We designed the window to scroll in both directions. The horizontal scrolling is helpful when the salesperson makes the window small enough that not all of the columns are displayed. The vertical scrolling is helpful when the salesperson makes the window small enough that not all of the lines are displayed.

We included a status area at the top of the window to tell the salesperson when the window had last been refreshed and whether the view had been filtered. Figure 110 shows the window for the details view of the car lot object. Each line represents one car in the car lot.

Figure 110. Window Displaying the Details View of the Car Lot Object. Each line of information in the window represents one car in the car lot.

The Window for the Filtering Feature: We named the filtering feature Include... because it allows a salesperson to specify which cars are to be included in the view of the car lot. The Include... choice is a routing choice that appears in the pull-down menu from the View choice on the menu bar of the icons and details views of the car lot object. The Include Cars window appears when a salesperson selects the Include... choice. It is a secondary window.

Our first design of the Include Cars window for appears in Figure 111. Although we subsequently changed the design of the window, we have included our original design here to illustrate how we used the iterative design process to improve our product.

Figure 111. First Design of the Include Cars Window

To allow a salesperson to specify the filter criteria, we provided several types of controls. For the Model, Make, and Color fields, we used drop-down combination boxes. The drop-down characteristic saves space in the window, the entry field portion of the control allows a salesperson to type the appropriate information, and the list box portion of the control allows a salesperson to select the desired information without having to type it.

We used two spin buttons for the Price field, and we provided a ring of values in $1,000 increments. The spin buttons allow the salesperson to specify a minimum and maximum price for the cars to be displayed in the contents views (icons and details).

To allow a salesperson to specify the features of the cars to be displayed in the contents views, we used a pair of list boxes with three associated push buttons. The list box on the left contains the features that are available for a particular make, model, and year of car. The list box on the right is where the salesperson creates a list of the features that the customer does and does not want. To create the list in the list box on the right, the salesperson selects a feature from the list box on the left, then selects the With >> push button if the customer wants that feature. The salesperson selects the Without >> push button if the customer does not want that feature.

Features added to the list box on the right appear with a check mark if they were added with the With push button.

When a salesperson wants to remove a feature from the list, the salesperson selects the feature in the list box on the right, then selects the Delete push button.

At the bottom of the window we placed some standard CUA-defined push buttons: Include, Close, and Help. When a salesperson selects the Include push button, the window containing the contents view of the car lot displays all of the cars that match the criteria specified in the Include Cars window, and the Include Cars window remains open.

The Close push button closes the Include Cars window without changing the display in the Icons or Details window of the car lot.

A salesperson can select the Help push button to display contextual help for the control or choice that the cursor is on.

To assist salespeople in learning to use our product, we provided an information area at the bottom of the Include Cars window. When a salesperson moves the cursor to a control, the information area displays information about how to use that control. For example, when the cursor is on the Available list box, the information area displays a message that says something like this:

Select a feature from this list.
Then use With >> or Without >> to add the feature to the Desired list.

During a usability test, we discovered that the Available and Desired list boxes and the With >> and Without >> push buttons didn't make sense to our users. Consequently we redesigned the Include Cars window to make it easier to understand and to reduce the number of decisions that salespeople had to make. In particular, we added two fields that contain the features customers ask for most often. Figure 112 shows the redesigned Include Cars window.

Figure 112. New Version of the Include Cars Window

To alleviate the confusion that resulted when salespeople had to transfer a feature from one control to another, we used check boxes and radio buttons instead of the list boxes. The check boxes are appropriate for most of the options because the salespeople can easily understand the implications of checking an option or not--that is, a salesperson realizes that checking the Air conditioning choice means that the customer wants air conditioning, and not checking it means that the customer does not want air conditioning. For the Transmission choices, however, check boxes were not appropriate because a car must have some kind of transmission. Therefore, we used radio buttons so that a salesperson has to select which kind of transmission the car should have. To accommodate customers who will accept either kind of transmission, we provided a No preference choice.

The Window for the Sorting Feature: We named the sorting feature Sort..., aptly enough. The Sort... choice is a routing choice that appears in the pull-down menu from the View choice on the menu bar of the car lot object. The Sort Cars window appears when a salesperson selects the Sort... choice. It is a secondary window.

A salesperson can select the Sort... choice to specify the order in which the cars should appear in the details view of the car lot object. We used drop-down lists to display the names of the sorting categories so that a salesperson would not have to remember the names of the appropriate sorting values. The values correspond to the column headings shown in the details view.

We designed two alternatives for the Sort Cars window. In the first version, we used radio buttons and text as the mechanism for specifying the sort order. Figure 113 shows this version.

Figure 113. Version 1 of the Sort Cars Window. In this version of the window design, we used radio buttons as the mechanism for specifying the sort order.

In the second version, we used value sets containing graphics that depict the sort order. Figure 114 shows this version.

The push buttons in both versions operate much like the push buttons in the Include Cars window.

Figure 114. Version 2 of the Sort Cars Window. In this version of the window design, we used value sets as the mechanism for specifying the sort order.

It is not uncommon for designers to produce more than one proposed solution to a design problem. Usability testing is the only way to determine which design is superior.

When the salesperson selects the Sort push button the details view of the car lot object is sorted as shown in Figure 115. The sort order is indicated in the status area.

Figure 115. Sorted Details View of the Car Lot Object. The sort order is indicated in the status area.

The Window for the Map View: The map view is a pictorial display of the dealership's physical car lot. The view contains drawings of the showroom and the parking places in the car lot. Car icons in the parking places indicate where the corresponding cars are parked.

Car lot attendants are the primary users of this view of the car lot. As the lot attendants move cars into and out of the lot, they update the information displayed in this view. However, salespeople use the map view to find out the location of cars that customers want to test drive. Furthermore, a salesperson can drag a car icon to the showroom. By doing so, the salesperson signals a lot attendant to bring the car to the showroom so that a customer can take it for a test drive. When a sale is closed, the salesperson drags the car icon to the service building so that the service manager can schedule the pre-delivery prep work for the car.

Other dealership workers can also use the map view. Sales managers can analyze sales patterns by using the map view. If the map view were tied to the sales database, the sales managers might be able to learn, for example, that cars parked in the first two rows of the lot sell more quickly than cars parked at the back of the lot. The map view can also be used to take a physical inventory of the cars in stock.

Figure 116. Window for the Map View of the Car Lot Object. The map view represents the dealership's physical car lot.

1.6.3.4.3 Windows for the Customer Object

A salesperson needs to be able to enter, view, and work with the customer information, so we decided to display these groups of information in two sections of a notebook control, one for general information and one for financial information. The notebook control was the obvious choice because the information can be grouped easily and because the design of the notebook control can be helpful in controlling access to certain information. For example, if we wanted to restrict access to a customer's financial information, we could include security measures that allow only the salesperson and the finance manager to have access to that section of the notebook. Figure 117 shows the first page of the general information section of the customer object.

Figure 117. Window for the Customer Object. A notebook control with divider tabs displays information about a customer. The divider tabs, labeled General and Financial, indicate the major groups of information.

The general information section of the notebook has four pages. On the first page we provided entry fields for most of the information because entering the information is the only way to acquire the information. For the Name, City, Zip, Home, and Work fields, we used single-line entry fields. For the Street field we used a multiple-line entry field. We made the entry fields large enough to display a typical customer's information, so we did not provide scroll bars.

We provided a drop-down combination box for the State field. The drop-down combination box allows a salesperson either to type in the two-letter abbreviation for the state or to scroll through and select from a list of all of the abbreviations.

Because most of a car dealership's customers live in the vicinity of the dealership, we pre-filled some of the entry fields with the values most likely to appear in them. For example, because our dealership is in North Carolina, we pre-filled the State field with NC, and we pre-filled the Home and Work fields with the area code for the area where the dealership is located. Of course the salesperson can changes these values.

Each field has a field prompt, and some fields are grouped with a group heading. For example, the Street, City, State, and Zip fields are grouped under the Address group heading, and the Home and Work fields are grouped under the Telephone group heading.

A salesperson can move the cursor from one entry field to the next by pressing the Tab key or by moving the pointer and clicking the mouse button.

The second page of the general information section of the notebook looks like this:

Figure 118. Customer Window, Page 2

Our product automatically calculates the value for the Age field, which is a read-only field, by reading the values the salesperson enters into the Date of birth field. Descriptive text appears to the right of the Date of birth field to let the salesperson know the correct format for the date of birth information.

Some of the customer information has inherent characteristics that we could use to help verify whether the salesperson has entered appropriate values. For example, state information must be two alphabetic characters, and the identification number must be nine numeric characters. When a salesperson enters a value for one of these pieces of information, our product checks the entered information to ensure that it has the correct characteristics. If it does not, the product alerts the salesperson.

We considered two methods for alerting a salesperson. First we considered changing the background color or contrast of the entry field as soon as the salesperson enters an inappropriate value. Then we considered displaying a message window that describes the problem and provides controls that allow the salesperson to correct the problem from within the message window. For example, if a salesperson enters fewer than nine digits for the identification number or enters alphabetic characters instead of numbers, our product would display a message like this:

Figure 119. Message Window

We decided the first method might be too subtle for our intended users, so we settled on the message window.

The third and fourth pages of the general information section contain settings choices that pertain to the customer object itself rather than to the customer that the object represents. The pages are similar to the page shown in Figure 34 in topic 1.4.5.1.3. We placed these pages behind the other pages in the section because a salesperson will use the customer object information less often than the customer information found on the first two pages.

1.6.3.4.4 Windows for the Worksheet Object

The worksheet object is the most important because it is where all of the elements of the sale come together: the customer, the car, and the money. However, if we had tried to display all of the information about the car, customer, and money at once, a salesperson would have had difficulty reading and working with the information. We used a notebook control to organize the information into sections that are meaningful to a salesperson and that reflect the tasks the salesperson wants to accomplish. A salesperson can get to any section of the notebook by selecting the tab for that section.

Figure 120 shows the worksheet window. The page displayed is the actual worksheet that the salesperson uses when negotiating the sale. Several of the entry fields are filled in automatically when the salesperson transfers the customer and car information to the worksheet. For example, the Vehicle, VIN, and Retail fields are filled according to information from the car object. The values for some of the other fields are based on defaults suggested by the dealership. For example, the License fee field automatically displays the standard licensing fee for the state in which the dealership is located. If a customer plans to license the vehicle in a different state, the salesperson can type a different value into the field or can change the amount to $0. The Net price and Balance fields are read-only fields. The values they contain are calculated according to the values contained in other fields.

Figure 120. Worksheet Window

1.6.4 Using the Product



After completing the research and planning and the design of the product, we built a prototype and tested the product. As stated earlier, a discussion of prototyping and usability testing is beyond the scope of this book. However, we can provide a brief description of how the completed product is used.

1.6.4.1 Scenario of Use

Sean O'Toole walks into an automobile dealership looking for a particular kind of car. Mary Walsh, the dealership's top salesperson greets Sean and asks him what kind of car he is interested in.

"Do you have any Hutton ProSport cars?" Sean asks.

"Just a minute. Let me check," Mary responds.

Mary leads Sean to her desk, where she has a workstation. She moves her pointing device, a mouse, until the pointer is on an icon that represents the dealership's new car lot. She double-clicks on the icon and a window appears on her display screen. The window contains many icons that resemble cars. The color of each icon is the same as the color of the car it represents.

"This window shows me all the new cars we have in stock," she explains.

Figure 121. Icons View of the New Car Lot Object. By double-clicking on an icon labeled New Car Lot, Mary opens this window.

She moves the pointer to the View choice on the menu bar and clicks on the choice. A pull-down menu appears. Then she moves the pointer to the Details choice in the View menu and clicks on the choice.

Figure 122. Changing from One View to Another. Mary changes from an icons view to a details view by clicking on the Details choice in the View menu.

The appearance of the contents of the window changes immediately.

Figure 123. Details View of the New Car Lot Object. Mary changes to this view by clicking on the Details choice in the View menu.

The title of the window is now New Car Lot - Details, and the window contains smaller icons along with columns of text that indicate each car's year, make, model, price, prospective buyers, and vehicle identification number (VIN).

"Let's see if we have the model you're looking for."

Mary moves the pointer to the View choice on the menu bar again. When the pull-down menu appears, she clicks on the Include... choice. Another window appears on the screen.

Figure 124. Include Cars Window for the New Car Lot. Mary opens this window by clicking on the Include... choice in the View menu. By using the controls in this window, Mary can indicate which cars she wants to see in the New Car Lot window.

Its title is New Car Lot - Include Cars, and it contains controls that allow Mary to specify which kinds of cars are to be included in the view of the new car lot.

"Let's see. You wanted a Hutton ProSport, right? This year's model?" Mary
asks.

"Yes."

"What color and what kinds of options do you want?"

"Red, and I want air conditioning and cruise control. I don't care whether the transmission is automatic or manual."

"How much do you want to spend?"

"Well, I don't want a plain car, but I don't need the top-of-the-line option package either."

After filling in the entry fields of the drop-down combination boxes and checking the appropriate options, Mary adjusts the price field based on her knowledge of the range of prices for the ProSport model. Then she clicks on the Include push button. The New Car Lot - Include Cars window closes, and the contents of the New Car Lot - Details window change.

Figure 125. Filtered Details View of the Car Lot. The details view of the car lot now displays only the cars that matched the criteria that Mary specified in the New Car Lot - Include Cars window.

"Does that ProSport have a four-cylinder engine?" Sean asks.

"Let's see," Mary replies.

Mary moves the pointer to the icon for the car Sean indicated and double-clicks. A window displaying general information about the car appears. Mary reads the information and says, "No, it has a six-cylinder engine. Let's try another one." She double-clicks on the system-menu symbol and the window closes.

Figure 126. General Information View of a Car Object. Mary opens this window by double-clicking on a car icon.

"Here's another red one. Let's see if it has a more economical engine."

She double-clicks on the icon of a different car. When the window appears, she sees that the car does have a four-cylinder engine.

"Would you like to see the car? Maybe take it for a test drive?" Mary asks.

"Yes," Sean replies, "but where is it? I didn't see any ProSports on the lot when I came in."

"No problem," Mary says. "I'll find it on the map."

Mary moves the pointer to the title bar of the new car lot window and clicks on it to make the window active. Then she moves the pointer to the icon of the car Sean is interested in. She clicks on it to select it. Then she selects the Map choice from the View menu. The content of the window changes to show a map of the car dealership. The car Sean is interested in is highlighted.

Figure 127. Map View of the New Car Lot. Mary displays this view by clicking on the Map choice in the View menu.

"There it is," Mary says. She drags the icon to the showroom. "The lot attendant will bring the car around front. You can take it for a test drive."

After driving the car, Sean returns and tells Mary he would like to buy it.

"Have you purchased a car here before?" Mary asks.

"No, I haven't."

"Then I need to get some information from you."

They return to Mary's workstation, where Mary double-clicks on an icon labeled Customer List. A window appears. It contains icons representing the dealership's customers. Mary moves the pointer to an existing customer icon and clicks to select the icon. Then she moves the pointer to the Edit menu and clicks. A pull-down menu appears. Mary moves the pointer to the Create choice and clicks on it. A newly created customer object is stored on the clipboard.

Figure 128. The Customer List Window. To create a new customer object from the Customer List window, Mary clicks on the Create choice in the Edit menu.

Then Mary clicks on the Paste choice in the Edit menu. The newly created customer object on the clipboard is placed in the customer list. Mary moves the pointer to the icon of the new customer object and double-clicks. A window opens containing a notebook. The Name field is highlighted and it contains the words "New customer."

"How do you spell your last name?" Mary asks.

"O-T-O-O-L-E." Mary types as Sean speaks, and Sean's name replaces the words "New customer." Mary presses the Tab key to move the cursor to the Street field.

Figure 129. Window for the Customer Object

Sean tells her his address and telephone number and Mary fills in the rest of the entry fields.

"I think you forgot to change the state. I live in Virginia, not North Carolina," Sean says.

"Okay, I'll change it."

While pressing and holding the Alt key, Mary presses the T key, which is the mnemonic for the State field. The cursor moves to the State field. She types in the abbreviation for Virginia. Once the customer information is entered correctly, Mary moves the pointer to an icon labeled Worksheet List. She double-clicks on the icon and a window opens. The worksheet list contains all of the worksheets in progress for various customers, and the window opens to an icons view.

To create a new worksheet object, Mary could follow the same procedure she used to create a new customer object--that is, by indirect manipulation. However, she chooses to create a new worksheet by direct manipulation. She double-clicks on a folder icon labeled New Things. The folder opens. It contains templates of standard objects in the car dealership product. Figure 130 shows an icons view of the New Things folder.

Figure 130. Templates of Standard Objects. The New Things folder contains templates of standard objects in the car dealership product. Mary can use these templates to create new customer objects, worksheet objects, and folder objects. A lot attendant can use the New Car template to create car objects when new inventory arrives at the dealership.

Mary moves the pointer to the icon labeled New Worksheet and drags a new worksheet from the template to the Worksheet List window. When she releases the mouse button, the newly created worksheet remains in the Worksheet List window, and the worksheet template remains in the New Things window. Figure 131 illustrates creating by direct manipulation.

Figure 131. Creating a New Object by Direct Manipulation. Mary opens a folder containing templates of objects. She places the pointer on the New Worksheet object and creates a new worksheet by dragging a copy of the worksheet from the template to the Worksheet List window.

Mary drags Sean's customer icon to the new worksheet icon. A copy of Sean's customer information is transferred to the worksheet object.

Figure 132. Transferring Data by Direct Manipulation. Mary copies information from Sean's customer object to Sean's worksheet object by dragging the customer icon to the worksheet icon.

Mary does the same with the icon of the car Sean is interested in. The car information is copied and transferred to the worksheet object.

Mary opens Sean's worksheet object by double-clicking on its icon. A window appears containing a notebook with several tabbed divider pages. The top page is a worksheet form that has some fields already filled in according to the information that Mary transferred to the worksheet object. The entire set of Sean's customer information is in a section of the notebook called Customer information. Likewise, the information that Mary transferred from the car object appears together in a section called Car information.

Figure 133. Sean's Worksheet. Mary opens Sean's worksheet by double-clicking on the worksheet's icon. Some of the entry fields are already filled in when Mary opens the worksheet. For example, the fields for the customer's name and the
salesperson's name, and the fields for the vehicle information, are already filled in because Mary transferred that information to the worksheet by dragging the customer and car icons to the worksheet icon. Other fields are read-only
fields that the product calculates automatically. For example, the Net price field is calculated according to the figure automatically displayed in the Retail field and the figures Mary enters in the Rebate, Trade-in, Allowance, and License fee fields.

"Do you want to trade in a car?" Mary asks.

"I'm not sure. I'd like to see the difference in financing if I do," Sean replies.

"Okay, I'll make two worksheets, one with a trade-in and one without. Then you can decide which is better for you."

Mary selects Sean's worksheet, then copies it and pastes the copy into the worksheet list.

Mary and Sean then discuss the prices and conditions of the sale. As they agree on prices, Mary enters them into the appropriate fields on the worksheets. Sean decides he will trade in his old car. The worksheets automatically calculate the net price and balance due. Finally, Mary says, "You're a tough bargainer. I need to ask my sales manager, Peter Liczinski, if he will agree to these figures."

Mary drags the icon for the worksheet containing the trade-in information to an icon that represents an electronic mail out-basket. The icon is labeled To Liczinski.

Figure 134. Using Electronic Mail to Send Information. Mary sends a worksheet to the sales manager by dragging the worksheet's icon to an icon that represents an electronic mail out-basket.

"He'll look over the figures we've proposed and let us know if we've got a deal. Would you like some coffee while we wait?"

After a few minutes, Mary's terminal makes a sound and her electronic mail in-basket flashes to indicate that a message has arrived. Mary double-clicks on the in-basket and a window opens showing the contents of the in-basket. Mary double-clicks on the icon of the single message in the in-basket, and another window opens. It contains a message from Peter Liczinski saying that he accepts the figures she proposed.

"It seems that you've got yourself a car, Sean," Mary says. "I'll send this information to the finance manager, Rachel Green. She'll help you finish the transaction. In the meantime, I'll get your car ready for you."

Mary drags the icon for the completed worksheet to another out-basket icon labeled To Green. Then she takes Sean to Rachel's office. After introducing them, she returns to her terminal to tidy up the windows.

She wants to get rid of the unused worksheet, so she drags the icon to an icon labeled Delete Folder. The delete folder will delete the worksheet for her.

Figure 135. Deleting Unwanted Information. Mary deletes the unused worksheet by dragging its icon to the delete folder icon.

Then she double-clicks on the system menu symbol on Sean's worksheet window, on Sean's customer window, on the worksheet list window, on the customer list window, and on the car window. Each window closes in turn because closing is the default action for double-clicking on the system menu symbol. Then, with her workplace in order, Mary goes to prepare Sean's new car.

2.0 Part 2. CUA Reference

2.1 Chapter 7. Overview


This overview provides a brief description of the major components covered by the CUA guidelines. It summarizes many of the topics covered in "Common User Access Interface Components" beginning on page 2.2 and provides comparative information about when and how components are used. If you are unfamiliar with the CUA guidelines and terminology, specific related topics are identified to help you determine which topics should be referred to for more detailed product-development information.

2.1.2 Types of Objects


Objects are the focus of a user's attention. The CUA guidelines define three types of objects: device, data, and container.

The CUA guidelines do not define particular types of data objects. However, guidelines are provided for interacting with data objects, such as text objects.

The CUA guidelines define four types of container objects that other objects can be placed into: folders, delete folders, work areas, and workplaces.

Each product defines the objects and properties necessary for that product, and the object-specific actions that can be applied only to those objects. The CUA guidelines define how the objects are displayed on the desktop or workplace, such as in windows, and how the actions are presented to a user, such as in menus.

Related Topics

° "Folder (Object)" in topic 2.2.40
° "Device (Object)" in topic 2.2.28
° "Object" in topic 2.2.69
° "Delete Folder (Object)" in topic 2.2.26
° "Work Area (Object)" in topic 2.2.136
° "Workplace" in topic 2.2.137

2.1.3 Elements of the User Interface


Elements of the user interface, as opposed to objects, are unique to the computer environment. User-interface elements provide the means of representing and interacting with user objects on the desktop or workplace. Windows, icons, choices, and controls are examples of user-interface elements that are commonly found in products using the CUA guidelines.

2.1.3.3 Windows

Windows are used to present views of objects. In an application-oriented operating environment, users typically open a window and then specify the object they wish to interact with. In an object-oriented operating environment, a view of an object is displayed in the window when the window is opened. This is one difference between an application-oriented operating environment and an object-oriented operating environment: users can display views of objects directly without first specifying the application used to display that view. Another key difference is that in an application-oriented operating environment, the same window could be used to display other objects. In an object-oriented operating environment there is a one-to-one relationship between objects and
windows. When a window is open on an object, in order to view another object, the object is displayed in a separate window.

Windows are also used to present messages, progress indicators, help information, and choices that further clarify actions.

In both application-oriented and object-oriented operating environments, multiple windows can be shown on the screen at the same time. If windows overlap, the active window (the window the user is interacting with) is usually placed on top of any overlapping windows. The two basic types of windows are: primary windows and secondary windows.

2.1.3.3.2 Secondary window

Secondary windows look very much like primary windows. For example, both have window borders and title bars. The important distinction between primary and secondary windows is based on how they are used. Secondary windows are always associated with a primary window and contain information that is dependent on an object in the primary window. Secondary windows are used, for example, to allow a user to further clarify action requests. Secondary windows are removed when the primary window is closed or minimized, and redisplayed when the primary window is
opened or restored. Figure 143 shows a typical secondary window.

Figure 143. Secondary Window

Related Topics

Designing Windows
° "Action Window" in topic 2.2.4
° "Active Window" in topic 2.2.5
° "Inactive Window" in topic 2.2.48
° "Input Focus" in topic 2.2.52
° "Primary Window" in topic 2.2.81
° "Secondary Window" in topic 2.2.99
° "Split Window" in topic 2.2.115
° "Window" in topic 2.2.128
° "Windows Menu" in topic 2.2.134
Designing Window Layout
° "Column Heading" in topic 2.2.14
° "Descriptive Text" in topic 2.2.27
° "Field Prompt" in topic 2.2.35
° "Group Box" in topic 2.2.42
° "Group Heading" in topic 2.2.43
° "Hide (Choice)" in topic 2.2.46
° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50
° "Menu Bar" in topic 2.2.60
° "Notebook (Control)" in topic 2.2.68
° "Separator" in topic 2.2.104
° "Status Area (Cue)" in topic 2.2.116
° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129
° "Window Title" in topic 2.2.135

2.1.3.3.1 Primary window

A primary window is used to present a view of an object or group of objects when the information displayed about the object or group of objects is not dependent on any other object. A view of an object is typically displayed in a primary window.

Object information is presented in the area of the window below the menu bar (Figure 142 shows the components of a primary window). A user can control the size and position of primary windows on the screen.

Figure 142. Primary Window

2.1.3.1 Views of Objects

Opening a window on an object displays a view of the object. An object may have more than one view to allow a user to see other aspects of the same object. The CUA guidelines define four common types of views: composed, contents, settings, and help. The appearance of composed and contents views are object-specific. A user can change the view of an object by selecting another view from a menu. The CUA guidelines recommend that the settings view for an object be displayed using a notebook control and help views be displayed by opening another window.

A user can display multiple, simultaneous views of an object in multiple windows by opening the same object multiple times. To see different parts of a view in the same window, a Split choice could be provided to allow a user to split the window into different sections. In Figure 138 a contents view and a settings view of the same object are displayed.

2.1.3.2 Icons



In an application-oriented operating environment, a user's first encounter with icons is usually with icons that represent applications. Icons that represent applications appear in containers used to group such objects. Users can manipulate these icons to accomplish tasks such as moving the object to a new container. Also, users can start applications by opening the icon for that application.

In OS/2 1.3, for example, icons on the desktop also represent minimized windows of running applications. When a user double-clicks or restores a minimized window's icon, the icon disappears from the desktop and is replaced by an open window.

In an object-oriented operating environment, icons represent objects. When a user opens an icon, the icon remains visible but is visually augmented to indicate that it is currently in use. This augmentation, or emphasis, is called in-use emphasis.

When a user opens an object, a window is opened to display a view of the object. Figure 141 shows an icon being moved from one container to another container. It also shows an icon displayed with in-use emphasis in the container.

Figure 141. Icons

Related Topics

° "Icon" in topic 2.2.47

Figure 138. Multiple Views of an Object

2.1.3.1.1 Help

While using a product, a user occasionally requires additional information about choices, fields, or how to proceed with a task. This type of information is displayed when a user requests help.

Help can be accessed from the menu bar. The choices in the menu give specific kinds of help information, such as an index of the help topics, or help about the window or task. Help can also be accessed from a push button or a key assigned to contextual help on the indicated item. Contextual help can also be accessed from the pop-up menu of an object.

Figure 139 shows an example of the help menu.

Figure 139. Help Menu

Users can get contextual help for a choice or object. Contextual help provides specific help information about the choice or object with respect to its current state. For example, getting contextual help on a choice displayed with unavailable-state emphasis might explain why that choice is currently unavailable and what a user would have to do to select the choice. Figure 140 shows an example of contextual help for the Make field in the window.

Figure 140. Contextual Help

Related Topics

Providing Help for Users
° "Contextual Help" in topic 2.2.17
° "General Help (Choice)" in topic 2.2.41
° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45
° "Help Index (Choice)" in topic 2.2.44
° "Keys Help" in topic 2.2.55
° "Product Information (Choice)" in topic 2.2.83
° "Tutorial (Choice)" in topic 2.2.121
° "Using Help (Choice)" in topic 2.2.124

2.1.2.1 Creating New Objects

There are several methods available to a user to create new objects. In an application-oriented environment, new objects are created by opening an application window and either selecting the New choice to create a new object or by selecting the Save as choice to copy an existing object.

The New choice is used to create a new object in the window where New was selected. The new object is typically of the same class as the existing object in the window, but unique information can be automatically generated for it when it is created. This unique information may be simple, such as a new form number, or it can be more elaborate information taken from the current context. The newly created object reuses the same window from which the New choice was selected. The location of the new object is not determined when the object is created; instead, it is specified by the user from the Save As window when the Save as choice is selected or when the window is closed.

The Save as choice is used in an application-oriented environment to create a new object based on an existing object. When this choice is selected while working with an existing named object in a window, a copy of the object is made and the Save As window is displayed to allow the user to specify a name and location for the new object. The original object in the window is not affected.

Two other choices, Create and Copy, are provided in both application-oriented and object-oriented environments from menus, or their function can be provided through direct manipulation. In an object-oriented environment, new objects are created by finding another object of the desired type and requesting that a new one either be created from this object or copied from this object. In an application-oriented environment, Create and Copy are typically used to create or copy objects within the window. In an object-oriented environment, Create and Copy can be used for objects within a window, as well as objects on the workplace.

When using menus the Create choice is selected from the Edit menu or from the pop-up menu of an object. The Create choice uses the clipboard. Like the New choice, this choice may generate unique information for the new object. A default name is usually generated for the new object, although the user could change this name later. The location of the new object is determined by the user when the Paste choice is selected.

Like the Create choice, the Copy choice is selected from the Edit menu or from the pop-up menu of an object and uses the clipboard. The new object can have the same name as the original object if unique names are not required. The location of the new object is determined by the user when the Paste choice is selected.

When using direct manipulation, the default operation when a user drags an object can be either a move or a copy. A user can override a default operation, for example, to request that an object be copied instead of moved by pressing a mouse button. In addition, an object may have a create-on-drag setting that allows the user to specify whether when overriding the move default a create operation should be performed instead of the Copy. When this setting is on, the appearance of the object's icon is changed to reflect that the create operation will occur instead of the copy.

In many situations it may be convenient for users to create a folder containing sample objects from which users can create new objects. Each object in this folder would have the create-on-drag setting on to allow the user to easily create new objects by dragging objects out of this folder (using the override key) to the desired location.

In addition to creating new objects a user can create a reflection of an object. Objects that support reflections will have cascaded choices off the Create choice to specify that a reflection is desired. In addition, a user could create a reflection during direct manipulation.

2.1.1 Operating Environment


The CUA guidelines support the development of products that are to be used in application-oriented operating environments and object-oriented operating environments. The operating environment establishes a basic framework of function that products can utilize. The environment typically includes such basic functions as management functions for windows, files, printers, and configuration options.

An application-oriented environment is one in which users must first start applications in order to work with objects. The CUA graphical model, first published in 1989, defines a graphical user interface for products that are designed to be used in an application-oriented operating environment. The IBM Operating System/2* (OS/2*) 1.3 operating system is an example of an application-oriented operating environment.

In an application-oriented environment, groups of available applications are initially represented in application-manager windows as small graphic images called icons. A user can start an application which then displays its own window (or group of windows) from which a user performs tasks related to the application. While an application is running, a user can reduce the size of its window to a minimum size and position it in a handy place on the screen, which is typically referred to as the desktop. The desktop is the screen in an application-oriented operating environment. Figure 136 is an example of an application-oriented operating environment.

Figure 136. Example of an Application-Oriented Environment

In OS/2 1.3 a minimized window appears as an icon on the desktop but represents a running application. A user can manipulate running applications on the desktop, but cannot place objects on the desktop. Data transfer within and between applications is typically accomplished by using the Cut, Copy, and Paste menu choices associated with a system-provided clipboard.

Also introduced in 1989 was the workplace extension to the graphical model. The desktop in an object-oriented environment is called the workplace. The workplace extension defines an object-oriented user interface to support the development of products that are to be used in an object-oriented operating environment. In this environment, icons represent objects rather than running applications. A user no longer must start an application before selecting the object to work with. Instead, the user opens the object which automatically causes a window to be displayed that contains a view of the object. In addition to choosing actions from menus, a user can drag objects--represented as icons on the workplace--to perform some operations. For example, a text object can be printed by dragging its icon to the icon of a printer object. Figure 137 is an example of the workplace in an object-oriented operating environment.

Figure 137. Example of an Object-Oriented Environment

An object, such as a document, often contains other objects, such as graphs, charts, and tables. The workplace extension defines techniques that allow a user to perform actions on an object as a whole and on objects that are contained within other objects.

Because interfaces are evolving to support an object-oriented environment, the CUA guidelines in this book emphasize object-orientation. However, many of the CUA guidelines apply equally to both application-oriented and object-oriented environments. For example, dragging techniques and pop-up menus can be supported within and between product windows on the workplace even if they are not supported on the desktop of an application-oriented environment. By defining interface features useful in both application-oriented and object-oriented environments, the CUA guidelines allow you to position your products advantageously for the evolution to an object-oriented interface while maintaining compatibility with many aspects of an existing application-oriented interface.

2.1.3.3.3 Action Windows

Some actions require additional information from the user before they can be completed. In these situations, a choice, such as on a menu or push button, leads to a secondary window containing additional choices that clarify the action requested. Such a window is called an action window.

The Open and Save as choices are examples of menu choices that result in an action window. Figure 144 shows an example of the action window displayed as a result of selecting the Save as choice.

Figure 144. Save As Action Window

2.1.3.3.4 Messages

Messages are feedback to the user that occur because of a condition the operating environment or an object in the operating environment has detected. Messages tell a user that something has happened because of a request or that something undesirable or unexpected could occur. The CUA guidelines define three types of messages: information message, warning message, and action message. These three message types are based on the user actions that can be performed, not on the severity of the message.

Messages should clearly indicate why the message appeared and what actions can be taken. You can always provide access to help information in any kind of message to further aid a user in determining the problem or to learn how to correct the situation.

Information Message: An information message appears when a situation occurs that a user can do nothing about. The only actions a user can take when an information message is displayed is to dismiss the message window or request help information. Figure 145 shows an example of an information message.

Figure 145. Information Message

Information regarding the normal completion of a process can be displayed in an information area instead of as an information message.

Warning Message: Use a warning message when a user can continue the original request without modification, though a situation exists that the user should be aware of. Other actions may be provided to allow a user to modify the original request or cancel it. Figure 146 shows an example of a warning message.

Figure 146. Warning Message

Action Message: Use an action message when a situation arises in which the user must take some explicit action to correct the situation or choose an alternative action.

When an action message is displayed, a user can choose to retry the request after correcting the situation, choose some other action that redirects the request, or cancel the request. An action message can also contain controls, such as an entry field, that allow a user to attempt to correct data that is not valid or not correct. Figure 147 and Figure 148 show examples of action messages.

Figure 147. Action Message - Immediate User Attention Not Required

Figure 148. Action Message - Immediate User Attention Required

2.1.3.3.5 Progress Indicators

When a user requests a lengthy process, a progress indicator is used to indicate that the process is running and to provide information about the status of the process, such as how far it is from completion. A progress indicator is continually updated to reflect the latest status. Progress indicators may be displayed in the window where the process was requested or in a separate window. When displayed in a separate window, the window may also contain information that may otherwise have been displayed in an information message.

Figure 149 shows an example of a progress indicator in a window.

Figure 149. Progress Indicator in a Window

Related Topics

Informing a User
° "Action Message" in topic 2.2.3
° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50
° "Information Message" in topic 2.2.51
° "Message" in topic 2.2.61
° "Progress Indicator" in topic 2.2.84
° "Warning Message" in topic 2.2.127

2.1.3.4 Choices

Choices are used to act on indicated objects. There are three types of choices:

° Action choices for performing actions on objects
° Routing choices that lead to another menu or window from which additional selections can be made
° Settings choices to specify properties of objects.

Figure 150 shows some examples of choices.

Figure 150. Choices

Related Topics

Action Choices
° "Action Choice (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.2
° "Clear (Choice)" in topic 2.2.11
° "Close (Choice)" in topic 2.2.13
° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19
° "Create (Choice)" in topic 2.2.20
° "Cut (Choice)" in topic 2.2.22
° "Delete (Choice)" in topic 2.2.25
° "Maximize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.58
° "Minimize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.62
° "Move (Choice)" in topic 2.2.65
° "New (Choice)" in topic 2.2.67
° "Open As (Choice)" in topic 2.2.71
° "Paste (Choice)" in topic 2.2.74
° "Print (Choice)" in topic 2.2.82
° "Refresh and Refresh Now (Choice)" in topic 2.2.91
° "Restore (Choice)" in topic 2.2.92
° "Save (Choice)" in topic 2.2.94
° "Select All and Deselect All (Choice)" in topic 2.2.100
° "Size (Choice)" in topic 2.2.109
° "Split (Choice)" in topic 2.2.114
° "Undo and Redo (Choice)" in topic 2.2.123
° "Window List (Choice in Windows Menu)" in topic 2.2.132
° "Window List (Choice in System Menu)" in topic 2.2.131

Routing Choices
° "Find (Choice)" in topic 2.2.38
° "Include (Choice)" in topic 2.2.49
° "Open (Choice)" in topic 2.2.70
° "Open As (Choice)" in topic 2.2.71
° "Print (Choice)" in topic 2.2.82
° "Routing (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.93
° "Save As (Choice)" in topic 2.2.96
° "Sort (Choice)" in topic 2.2.111

Settings Choices
° "Settings (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.105
° "Short Menus and Full Menus (Choice)" in topic 2.2.107

2.1.3.5 Controls

Controls are components of the interface that allow a user to select choices and to type information. Menus are one type of control that is commonly used to contain choices. Other controls are used, for example, in settings views of objects and in windows that clarify an action request. However, controls may also be used in any view of an object.

Some controls can perform the same function, but are better suited for certain tasks or presentation schemes. For example, list boxes, combination boxes, drop-down list boxes, and drop-down combination boxes all perform similar functions. However, some of these controls allow a user to type values not provided by the control or require less space in a window. Because there are many different ways of allowing a user to interact with the interface, the CUA guidelines provide different controls to allow a user to work most efficiently. Figure 151 shows some examples of controls.

Figure 151. Examples of Some Controls Defined by the CUA Guidelines

Related Topics

Using Controls
° "Check Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.9
° "Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.15
° "Container (Control)" in topic 2.2.16
° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Default Action" in topic 2.2.24
° "Drop-Down Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.30
° "Drop-Down List (Control)" in topic 2.2.31
° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33
° "List Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.56
° "Notebook (Control)" in topic 2.2.68
° "Push Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.86
° "Radio Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.88
° "Slider (Control)" in topic 2.2.110
° "Spin Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.113
° "Value Set (Control)" in topic 2.2.125

2.1.3.5.1 Menus

The types of menus defined by the CUA guidelines are:

° Menu bars
° Pull-down menus
° Cascaded menus
° Pop-up menus.

Menu Bar and Pull-Down Menu Contents: Menu bars are displayed at the top of a window, under the window title. Each choice in the menu bar is a routing choice that leads to an associated pull-down menu. Choices in the pull-down menus are typically action or routing choices that relate to the contents of the window, though settings choices are also allowed. When routing choices are used, they lead to other windows or to cascaded menus.

The CUA guidelines define the common contents of the File, Selected, Edit, View, Options, Windows, and Help menu bar choices. In addition, the contents of the system menu pull-down are also defined. The system menu is shown as a graphical choice in the top, left-hand corner of the window, in the title bar.

The menu bar choices and contents defined in this version of the CUA guidelines provide an evolutionary step towards an object-oriented menu scheme. Below is a brief description of these choices, along with a description of the system menu and its contents. Figure 152 and Figure 153 show the layout of the predefined menu choices on the menu bar and title bar and also shows the predefined choices within those pull-down menus. Additional information about these choices is found in "Common User Access Interface Components" beginning on page 2.2.

File The File menu contains choices that affect the overall object in the window. There are two types of File menus: application-oriented and object-oriented.

Application-Oriented
Contains choices that affect the underlying object presented in the application-oriented window. For example, the File menu could contain an Open choice that allows a user to change the object presented in the window.

Object-Oriented
Contains choices that affect the underlying object presented in the object-oriented window. The label of this choice is the class name of
the underlying object that is shown in the window. For example, in the File pull-down menu for a window displaying a view of a folder, the label of the menu-bar choice would be Folder, and its pull-down menu could contain the Open as choice that would allow a user to open new windows displaying views of the same underlying object.

Selected The Selected menu is used for containers and data objects where objects within the window can be selected and actions applied to them. If the objects in the window are not homogeneous, then the available choices in this menu may vary widely, depending on which object is selected. For example, the names of the views listed from the Open as choice, may be very different depending on the views available for the selected object. The Selected menu has the same contents as the File menu for the selected object if a window was opened on that object.

Edit The Edit menu contains choices that are standard across many different object types, such as the choices that provide access to the clipboard.

View The View menu contains choices that change the view type or some aspects of the view, such as the Include, Sort, and Refresh choices.

Options The Options menu contains choices that allow a user to tailor the behavior and appearance of an application-oriented product.

Windows The Windows menu contains choices that provide access to other windows that are related to the same task.

Help The Help menu contains choices that provide access to help information.

System menu The system menu contains choices that change the visual characteristics of a window and other operating-environment-specific functions. Included in this menu is a Close choice for closing the window.

Figure 152. Application-Oriented Menu Choices

Figure 153. Object-Oriented Menu Choices

Pop-Up Menu Contents: Pop-up menus provide choices specific to an object. Pop-up menus are not visible until a user requests the pop-up menu be displayed. Unlike the choices in the menu bar and pull-downs, choices on a pop-up menu for a particular object vary depending on the state of the object. That is, only the choices that are currently valid are displayed in the pop-up menu.

Figure 154 shows the content and layout that the CUA guidelines define for pop-up menus. In the top portion of the menu is the Help choice and other choices that open a view of the object. In the center of the pop-up menu are the choices that access the clipboard. In the lower area of the pop-up menu are object-specific choices provided for convenience to users. The CUA guidelines define such choices as Undo, Print, and Clear, that may appear in the lower area of the pop-up menu. Other choices defined by the product may appear in this area as well.

Figure 154. Pop-Up Menu

Related Topics

Designing Menus
° "Cascaded Menu" in topic 2.2.8
° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10
° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59
° "Menu Bar" in topic 2.2.60
° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63
° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80
° "Pull-Down Menu" in topic 2.2.85
° "Short Menus and Full Menus (Choice)" in topic 2.2.107

2.1.4 User Interaction

2.1.4.1 Selection

A user interacts with an object by identifying the desired object and indicating actions to apply to that object. CUA interface guidelines define that a user must indicate an object or group of objects first, and then choose actions to apply to the object or group of objects.

A user can implicitly or explicitly indicate, or select, an object. An object that is implicitly selected does not require a specific selection action by a user and does not display selected-state emphasis. For example, a user does not need to first explicitly select an object in order to request its pop-up menu. Pointing at an object and requesting its pop-up menu will implicitly select the object. However, to request a pop-up menu for a group of objects, the user must explicitly select all objects to be included in the group.

An object that is explicitly selected is put into a selected state. This selected state is indicated with selected-state emphasis. Because an object stays selected until it is deselected, multiple actions can be applied to the same object without selecting that object multiple times.

Selecting an object does not imply an action, affect the object itself, or commit a user to some action. A user can select or deselect the object without changing the object in any way. In contrast to selecting an object, selecting an action causes something to happen to the selected object. For example, when the Delete choice is applied to a selected object, that object is deleted.

2.1.4.1.2 Selection Techniques

Selection techniques are the interaction mechanisms used for selecting objects. The CUA guidelines define techniques for both the keyboard and the mouse. Of the techniques specified, some are appropriate for selecting one object at a time, and others are appropriate for selecting multiple objects.

All selection techniques defined by the CUA guidelines are either point selection, point-to-endpoint selection, or random-point selection. The specific behavior of the selection technique depends on the selection type used, the type of object being selected, and the view of that object.

Point selection allows a user to select one object at a time. For example, the user moves the cursor to the object and presses the spacebar or clicks on the object with the mouse.

Point-to-endpoint selection allows a user to select all objects between two or more specified points. For example, a user can define two ends of a rectangle to select all objects fully contained within that rectangle; however, in a different type of view, any object or part of an object that falls within the defined area might be selected.

Random-point selection allows a user to select objects as the pointer passes over them, in whatever order the user chooses.

2.1.4.1.1 Selection Types

The CUA guidelines define three types of selection based on the number of objects that can be selected:

° The first type, single selection, allows at most one object to be selected at any time in a scope.
° Multiple selection allows a user to select one or more objects at any time in a scope.
° Extended selection allows a user to select only one object at a time or to extend the selection to more than one object.

One of these types of selection must be defined for each group of objects. For each of the controls discussed in "Controls" in topic 2.1.3.5, one or more of these types of selection are already defined.

2.1.4.2 Data Transfer

Users can transfer data within an object, or from one object to another by dragging with the pointing device or by using the clipboard choices (Cut, Copy, Create, and Paste). Data-transfer operations allow a user to move data, copy data, or create a new object.

When a mouse is used, a user first identifies the object to be transferred. The object is identified by pressing the mouse manipulation button while the pointer is over the object. If more than one object is to be dragged, then the objects must be selected before the transfer. While holding the mouse manipulation button down, the user moves the mouse and drags the object or group of objects until it is at the desired location. The characteristics of the source and target object determine what the default operation for the object will be, such as a move or copy. The user can be allowed to override this default operation by pressing a
key before dropping the object at the desired location.

The user can also transfer data by using the clipboard. The clipboard provided by the operating environment can be accessed by any object that provides the Cut, Copy, Create, and Paste choices.

To retrieve the contents of the clipboard, the user selects the Paste choice. A copy of the contents of the clipboard is pasted at the cursor position. Because the clipboard contents are preserved, the paste action can be repeated to get additional copies or, for the Create choice, to paste additional new objects.

2.1.4.3 Direct Manipulation

Direct manipulation allows a user to perform actions on objects by interacting directly with the objects. Dragging an object with a mouse and dropping it on another object is one form of direct manipulation. Moving, copying, printing, and deleting are examples of actions that can be accomplished using direct-manipulation techniques.

Using direct-manipulation techniques is usually an easier method of performing actions than performing the equivalent actions from menu bars and pull-downs. For example, with direct manipulation a user can move a document from one container to another by dragging it to the new container. Using the pull-downs requires that a user first select the document, then select the Copy choice from a pull-down menu to copy the object to the clipboard and then paste the clipboard contents into the new folder.

The user can perform other actions on objects by requesting a pop-up menu for an object. Pop-up menus can be thought of as a form of direct manipulation because they allow a user to more directly interact with an object, rather than through an intermediate control, such as a pull-down menu in a window that contains a choice that acts on a view of an object.

Related Topics

° "Contextual Help" in topic 2.2.17
° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23
° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29
° "Object" in topic 2.2.69
° "Source Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.112
° "Split Window" in topic 2.2.115
° "Target Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.118

2.1.4.4 Scrolling

Scrolling is used to display information in a view that does not fit within the current size of the window or the part of the window allocated for that information. For example, a long list of document names displayed in a window, or in a list box within a window, may require scroll enabling to allow a user to see all the names in the list.

A scroll bar is used as a visual indication that information may be scrolled. A user can interact with a scroll bar using the pointing device to scroll the information. In addition the CUA guidelines define techniques for scrolling information using the keyboard.

Related Topics

° "Column Heading" in topic 2.2.14
° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21
° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54
° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64
° "Scroll Bar" in topic 2.2.97
° "Scrolling Increment" in topic 2.2.98

2.1.4.5 Pointers and Cursors

A visible cue is provided for both the pointing device (such as a mouse) and the keyboard to show where interaction will occur. The visual cue for the pointing device is the pointer; the visual cue for the keyboard is the cursor. To avoid confusion as to where input will occur, only one pointer and one cursor are visible at a time.

The user moves the pointer freely on the screen. Users can move the cursor to only valid cursor positions. For example, the cursor can be moved to the menu bar choices and push buttons, but not to field prompts or headings. When a user clicks the pointing device, the cursor is placed at the indicated position, if possible. A cursor never affects the pointer location.

The CUA guidelines define the following types of pointers: an arrow pointer, an arrow pointer with augmentations, a wait pointer, and an I-beam pointer. Their descriptions follow in Figure 155.

 
_________________________________________________________________
| Figure 155. Predefined Pointers 				|
|_______________________________________________________________|
| Arrow pointer    | 	| The pointer that the user sees	|
|		   |	| most of the time and that is used	|
|		   |	| to select choices and objects.	|
|		   |	| The arrow pointer is also used	|
|		   |	| during a direct-manipulation		|
|		   |	| operation on an object to		|
|		   |	| indicate that the object will be	|
|		   |	| moved.				|
|__________________|____|_______________________________________|
| Arrow pointer -- | 	| The arrow pointer is modified		|
| While copying or |	| when a user performs a		|
| creating	   |	| direct-manipulation operation on	|
|		   |	| an object that results in a copy	|
|		   |	| of that object being created.		|
|__________________|____|_______________________________________|
| Arrow pointer -- | 	| When an object is not a valid		|
| Do not	   |	| target for a direct-manipulation	|
|		   |	| operation, the arrow pointer is	|
|		   |	| augmented with a circle with a	|
|		   |	| slash through it. The source		|
|		   |	| object will not be dropped at the	|
|		   |	| current pointer location.		|
|__________________|____|_______________________________________|
| Wait pointer 	   |  	| A pointer that indicates to a		|
|		   |	| user that the computer is		|
|		   |	| performing a process and cannot	|
|		   |	| receive input at the current		|
|		   |	| pointer location. A user can		|
|		   |	| move the wait pointer, but the	|
|		   |	| wait pointer cannot be used to	|
|		   |	| perform any operation.		|
|__________________|____|_______________________________________|
| I-beam pointer   | 	| A pointer that indicates that the	|
|		   |	| pointer is positioned over an		|
|		   |	| area where text can be typed or	|
|		   |	| selected.				|
|__________________|____|_______________________________________|

Products may change the appearance of the pointer to indicate a product- specific action. A tool palette may be provided by a product to allow easy access to several actions. When a user selects a tool from a tool palette, the pointer shape changes and pointer interaction is determined by the tool. For example, selecting a line-drawing tool causes a line to be drawn as users drag the pointing device.

CUA-interface guidelines define two types of cursors:

Selection cursor
A selection cursor is used for settings choices and for all objects. This cursor typically appears as a dotted outline box around the settings choice or the object. The cursor is usually seen even when other types of emphasis are displayed. For example, the selection cursor is visible on an object that is displayed with in-use emphasis.

Text cursor
A text cursor is used for keyboard text input. Two visuals are typically used for text cursors: a vertical bar to indicate insert mode and a colored background behind a character to indicate replace mode.

Related Topics

Designing Keyboard and Cursor Usage
° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21
° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33
° "Input Focus" in topic 2.2.52
° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54
° "Keys Help" in topic 2.2.55
° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63
° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103
° "Shortcut Key" in topic 2.2.106

Designing Mouse and Pointer Usage
° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29
° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64
° "Pointer" in topic 2.2.75
° "Pointing Device" in topic 2.2.77
° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103
° "Tool Palette" in topic 2.2.120

2.1.5 Cues

Cues provide information to users and help to orient them as they interact with the interface. Cues can be used to direct a user's attention to a part of the screen or to indicate a particular state of an object. The two kinds of cues are visible and audible.

2.1.5.1 Visible Cues

Visible cues allow users to immediately see the results of their interaction with the interface. We only discuss emphasis here, but arrow pointers, cursors, even animation, can be used as visible cues as well.

The type of emphasis used is determined by the type of interaction a user has with an object or choice. More than one type of emphasis may be valid on an object or choice at the same time, and therefore may be seen simultaneously. The CUA guidelines define these types of emphasis:

In-Use Emphasis: Indicates that a window is currently open on an object; users can still interact with the object as they normally would.

Selected-State Emphasis: Indicates that a choice or an object is selected.

Unavailable-State Emphasis: Indicates that a choice cannot be selected at that time.

Target Emphasis: Indicates the object that is the receiver of a direct-manipulation action. Target emphasis is used in conjunction with different pointer visuals to indicate the type of action that will be performed. Target emphasis can also indicate where the source object will be placed in the target object.

Source Emphasis: Indicates that an object is the source for a direct manipulation action. Source emphasis remains in effect until the direct manipulation action is complete.

2.1.5.2 Audible Cues

Audible cues are provided when a user attempts to perform an action that is not valid or when an event or state of the operating environment requires the user's attention. For example, when a user tries to select a choice displayed with unavailable-state emphasis, an audible cue should be generated. However, users can always specify in their operating environment that they want audible cues turned off.

Audible cues can be anything from a beep to a recorded message. The only limit is the hardware your product runs on and the usefulness of the cue for your users.

Related Topics

Providing Cues
° "Audible Feedback" in topic 2.2.6
° "In-Use Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.53
° "Selected-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.102
° "Source Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.112
° "Target Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.118
° "Unavailable-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.122

2.2 Chapter 8. Common User Access Interface Components

2.2.1 How to Use the CUA Reference


 

Figure 156. CUA Reference Page Example

2.2.2 Action Choice (Choice Type)


A choice that immediately begins to perform an action, such as the Close or Copy choice.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Use an action choice for actions on objects that occur immediately after the choice is selected.

Guidelines

Fnd When a user selects an action choice, immediately begin to perform the action.

Fnd Provide access to all action choices through menus or push buttons, or both.

Fnd Do not use an action choice to open an action window, to display a cascaded menu, or to display a pull-down menu; instead, use a routing choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10
° "Message" in topic 2.2.61
° "Progress Indicator" in topic 2.2.84

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Routing (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.93
° "Settings (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.105

2.2.3 Action Message

A message that indicates that a condition has occurred that requires a response from the user. The user can correct the condition and then continue, withdraw the request, or get help.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Display an action message when a situation occurs in which a user must correct the situation and retry, take some related alternative action, or withdraw the request.

Guidelines

Rec Provide controls in the message window that allow a user to correct the situation that caused the message to appear or to request a related alternative action. For example, provide an entry field in which a user can correct a value.

Rec Provide a push button that allows a user to retry the request after correcting the situation that caused the message to appear. For example, provide a push button labeled Retry that a user can select after adding paper to the printer.

Rec If your product can determine that the situation that caused the message to appear has been corrected so that the process can continue, immediately remove the message. For example, if the user puts paper in the printer and the product can determine that paper has been added, immediately remove the message.

Rec Provide a push button that allows a user to withdraw the request. For example, provide a push button labeled Cancel.

Rec When a user withdraws a request, leave the objects in a form that is meaningful to a user. For example, when a user requests to copy a group of objects, and an error occurs that causes the user to withdraw the request while the fifth object is being copied, leave the first four copied objects where they are and remove the partially copied fifth object.

Rec In the message text, suggest possible actions that a user can take to correct the situation that caused the message to appear.

Fnd Display the appropriate symbol in each action message as Figure 157 indicates:

________________________________________________________________
| Figure 157. Symbols That Appear in Action Messages |
|_______________________________________________________________|
| Symbol | When to use |
|________|______________________________________________________|
| | When a user's immediate attention is not |
| | required, such as when a user's data will not |
| | worsen with time. |
|________|______________________________________________________|
| | When a user's immediate attention is required. |
|_______________________________________________________________|

Fnd Provide an audible cue when an action message is displayed.

Essential Related Topics

° "Information Message" in topic 2.2.51
° "Message" in topic 2.2.61
° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87
° "Warning Message" in topic 2.2.127

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Audible Feedback" in topic 2.2.6

2.2.4 Action Window


A secondary window that is used to allow a user to further specify settings that are needed to complete the user's request.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide an action window when a user makes a request and more information is required in order to complete the request.

Fnd Provide an action window when a user selects a routing choice that leads to a window.

Guidelines

Rec Provide push buttons in the action window that continue the request, cancel the request, and allow user to request help.

Rec Make the default push button continue the request with the information in the window.

Rec Use a secondary window to display an action window.

Essential Related Topics

° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87
° "Routing (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.93
° "Secondary Window" in topic 2.2.99

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Settings (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.105

2.2.5 Active Window

The window that currently has the input focus. The active window is indicated by emphasis displayed on its title bar and border, as specified by the operating environment.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Make the window that can currently receive keyboard input the active window.

Guidelines

Fnd When a window receives input focus, change the color of the active window's title bar and border to the color the user has specified for the operating environment.

Rec When an inactive window becomes active as a result of a technique that does not explicitly specify the position of the cursor, redisplay the cursor in the position it was in when the window was last active.

Rec When a window is reopened and information about the previous position of the cursor has been saved, redisplay the cursor in its saved position. Otherwise, display the cursor in a default position, for example on the top left-most item on which the cursor can be positioned.

Rec Place a window on top of all other primary windows and make it the active window when a user:

° Selects an object in the window
° Selects the title bar or window border of that window
° Presses the key assigned to the switch between unassociated windows function
° Presses the key assigned to the switch between associated windows function.

Rec Design a window so that a user can interact with it or make it active when it is not the topmost window. For example, when a user begins a process that searches a text object, allow the user to interact with the text object while continuing to display the Find action window on top of the text window.

Essential Related Topics

° "Inactive Window" in topic 2.2.48
° "Input Focus" in topic 2.2.52

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.6 Audible Feedback

A sound generated by the computer to draw a user's attention to, or provide feedback about, an event or state of the computer. Audible feedback enhances and reinforces visible feedback.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide audible feedback when a warning message or action message is displayed.

Fnd Provide audible feedback when a user types a character that is not a mnemonic for the window in which the cursor is positioned, and the control on which the cursor is positioned does not accept text input. For example, if mnemonics are supported but no choice has "L" assigned as the mnemonic, provide audible feedback when "L" is typed. If mnemonics are not supported, do not provide audible feedback when the user types a character.

Fnd Provide audible feedback when a user attempts to select a choice that is displayed with unavailable-state emphasis.

Guidelines

Fnd If a user has turned off the audible feedback option for the operating environment and a situation arises in which the system would normally generate audible feedback, do not generate audible feedback. For example, if a user has turned off audible feedback for the operating environment, do not generate audible feedback when an action message is displayed.

Rec Allow a user to take advantage of audio-generation capabilities of hardware and software. For example, allow a user to specify different sounds to different events. At a minimum, generate a beep as audible feedback.

Essential Related Topics

° "Message" in topic 2.2.61
° "Unavailable-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.122

2.2.7 Automatic Selection


A selection technique in which moving the keyboard cursor automatically changes the current selection. Provided as a convenience so that a user does not have to explicitly select an object, automatic selection occurs as the cursor moves among the objects or choices.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide automatic selection when at least one object must always be selected.

Rec Provide automatic selection as the initial technique in extended selection when using the keyboard.

Guidelines

Fnd Always display selected-state emphasis on the object on which the cursor is currently positioned.

Essential Related Topics

° "Extended Selection" in topic 2.2.34
° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103
° "Single Selection" in topic 2.2.108

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Selected-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.102

2.2.8 Cascaded Menu


A menu that appears when a cascading choice is selected. It contains a set of choices that are related to the cascading choice. Cascaded menus are used to reduce the length of a menu.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Use a cascaded menu to reduce the length of a menu. For example, place a related set of choices in a cascaded menu rather than placing them individually on a pull-down menu.

Guidelines

Fnd When a user selects a cascading choice, display the cascaded menu associated with that choice.

Fnd Display a right-pointing arrow to the right of a cascading choice and align the right edge of the arrow with the right edge of the menu displaying the cascading choice.

Rec Avoid displaying more than two levels of cascaded menus from a menu.

Essential Related Topics

° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59
° "Routing (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.93

2.2.9 Check Box (Control)

A control used to display a settings choice that has two clearly distinguishable states, for example, on and off. Check boxes are typically used in a group to provide a multiple-choice field.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Use a check box to display an individual settings choice that can be set to on or off.

Fnd Use a group of check boxes for settings choices that are not mutually exclusive and can each be set to on or off.

Rec Use a check box only if a user will clearly understand the meaning of the choice when it is selected or not selected. For example, use a check box for a choice labeled Locked. A user can clearly understand that when the check box is selected, the associated object is locked, and when the check box is not selected, the associated object is not locked. Otherwise, use a control that clearly identifies the two choices, such as two radio buttons.

Guidelines

Fnd Display a check box to the left of its associated choice text.

Rec Arrange the check boxes in a group, in rows or columns, or both.

Fnd If a check box choice is currently unavailable, display it with unavailable-state emphasis.

Fnd When a user selects a check box from a group of check boxes, do not change the state of any other check boxes within the group.

Fnd When a check box represents a setting shared by more than one selected object:

° Display a mark in the check box if all of the selected objects have that setting turned on. For example, if two selected objects are both locked, display a mark in the Locked check box.

° Fill the box with shading if some, but not all, of the selected objects have that setting turned on. For example, if only one of two selected objects is locked, fill the Locked check box with shading.

° Do not display anything in the box if none of the selected objects has that setting turned on. For example, if neither of two selected objects is locked, leave the Locked check box empty.

Rec Assign a mnemonic to each check box choice.

Rec If a check box has a mnemonic assigned to it, provide access to the mnemonic by allowing a user to press the Alt key and that mnemonic.

Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a label of a check box choice unless the label contains an abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.

Essential Related Topics

° "Control" in topic 2.2.18

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10
° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.10 Choice


Text or graphics in a control that a user can select. Examples of choices are push buttons, radio buttons, and menu items. The three kinds of choices are action, routing, and settings.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide a choice for any item in a window that a user can select.

Guidelines

Fnd When a choice is not currently available, display it with unavailable-state emphasis, except in pop-up menus. Do not include unavailable choices in pop-up menus.

Rec In a menu that contains a group of mutually exclusive choices, display unavailable-state emphasis on the choice that is in effect.

Rec If choices in a group of mutually exclusive choices must show that they are unavailable and must indicate that one of those choices is currently in effect, then do not use a menu to display these choices: display these choices in a window instead.

Rec If a user attempts to select a choice that is currently unavailable, indicate in the information area that the choice cannot be selected and that Help will indicate why the choice is unavailable.

Rec Identify a choice with graphics or text, or both, depending on which best identifies the choice. For example, choices for a drawing product could consist of graphic fill patterns rather than text.

Rec Dynamically change the name of a choice by adding text or graphics, or both, to the name of a choice to make the meaning of that choice clearer in a given context. For example, changing the name of the Undo choice to Undo typing clarifies the meaning and differentiates the choice from Undo delete.

Rec Do not change the function of a choice because of a given context. For example, do not provide a push button labeled "Pause/Resume" that would have the function of either pausing or resuming a process depending on the current context. In that case, provide a push button labeled Pause and a push button labeled Resume and display unavailable-state emphasis on the one that is not available in the current context.

Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a name of a choice unless the name contains an abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.

Fnd Use the predefined label for each predefined choice.

Fnd Provide the predefined mnemonic for each predefined textual choice.

Fnd Provide a unique mnemonic for each product-specific textual choice in a menu, unless no meaningful unique mnemonic can be found.

Fnd Use Figure 158 to determine the appropriate choice types for each control. For example, use a check box control, rather than a menu or push button, for a settings choice that allows a user to choose whether or not lines are displayed in a table.


_________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 158. Recommended Choice Usage					|
|_______________________________________________________________________|
| Menu or Control | Action choice | Routing choice | Settings choice	|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Menu		  | Yes		  | Yes		   | Yes, but		|
|		  |		  |		   | recommend using	|
|		  |		  |		   | a notebook		|
|		  |		  |		   | instead.		|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Push button	  | Yes		  | Yes		   | No			|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Check box	  | No		  | No		   | Yes		|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Radio button	  | No		  | No		   | Yes		|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Value set	  | No		  | No		   | Yes		|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| List box	  | No		  | No		   | Yes		|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Drop-down list  | No		  | No		   | Yes		|
| box		  |		  |		   |			|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Combination box | No		  | No		   | Yes		|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Drop-down	  | No		  | No		   | Yes		|
| combination box |		  |		   | 			|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Spin button	  | No		  | No		   | Yes		|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|
| Slider	  | No		  | No		   | Yes		|
|_________________|_______________|________________|____________________|

Essential Related Topics

° "Action Choice (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.2
° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59
° "Routing (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.93
° "Settings (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.105
° "Unavailable-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.122

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Audible Feedback" in topic 2.2.6
° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50
° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63
° "Notebook (Control)" in topic 2.2.68

2.2.11 Clear (Choice)

An action choice that removes a selected object or group of objects without compressing the visible space it occupied.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a Clear choice to allow a user to remove an object or group of objects from a window without compressing the visible space the object or group of objects occupied. For example, provide a Clear choice to allow a user to remove information from selected cells of a spreadsheet without removing the cells that contained the information.

Guidelines

Fnd If you provide a Clear choice, and you provide an Edit menu, place the Clear choice in the Edit menu.

Rec If you provide the Clear choice for an object, place the Clear choice in the pop-up menu for the object when the object can currently be removed without compressing the visible space it occupied.

Fnd If you provide the Clear choice, display it with unavailable-state emphasis when the selected object or group of objects cannot be removed without compressing the visible space the object or group of objects occupied or when nothing is selected.

Rec Use the default delete folder provided by the operating environment as the destination of the Clear choice for objects represented by icons.

Rec If the destination of the Clear choice is a delete folder, append the label of the Clear choice with the name of the associated delete folder. For example, modify the choice to read Clear to Trash1 when "Trash1" is the name assigned to the delete folder into which the Clear choice will place cleared objects.

Rec If a user changes the name of the delete folder to which cleared choices are placed, immediately update the label of the Clear choice to display the new name of the delete folder.

Fnd Assign the Delete key as the shortcut key for the Clear choice when the Delete choice is not provided.

Fnd Assign "E" as the mnemonic for the Clear choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Delete (Choice)" in topic 2.2.25
° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Delete Folder (Object)" in topic 2.2.26

2.2.12 Clipboard


A data storage area used during transfer of information within an object or between objects. A clipboard is typically provided by the operating environment.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide access to the clipboard for all objects that support data transfer.

Guidelines

Rec Provide access to the clipboard through the Cut, Copy, Create, and Paste choices.

Rec Support as many formats of the object as is practical given the different views in which the object can be pasted.

Essential Related Topics

° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19
° "Create (Choice)" in topic 2.2.20
° "Cut (Choice)" in topic 2.2.22
° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23
° "Paste (Choice)" in topic 2.2.74

2.2.13 Close (Choice)

An action choice that removes a window and all of the secondary windows associated with it.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a Close choice for each window.

Guidelines

Fnd If a Close choice is provided, place it on the system menu only, or on both the system menu and a push button in the window.

Fnd If an object's information could be lost when the user selects the Close choice, display a warning message. For example, display a warning message if information in a table will be lost when a user closes the window in which a view of that table is displayed.

Rec If information in an action window could be lost when the user selects the Close choice, do not display a warning message. For example, do not display a warning message if information in a Find action window will be lost when a user closes the Find action window.

Rec When closing a window, save its state, including its position, size, and associated information, action, and warning messages that are currently displayed, so that they can be restored if the window is opened at a later time.

Rec When closing a work area, save the position and size of each open window associated with that work area, so that they can be restored if the work area is opened at a later time.

Fnd When a user selects the Close choice, remove the window and any associated secondary windows from the workplace.

Fnd When a user closes a work area, remove from the workplace all windows associated with that work area.

Fnd Assign "C" as the mnemonic for the Close choice.

Fnd Assign Alt+F4 as the shortcut key combination for the Close choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87
° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117

2.2.14 Column Heading

A label above a column of information that serves to identify the contents of the column.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a column heading for each column unless there is only one column and that column is identified by the window title.

Guidelines

Fnd Place a column heading above the column it identifies.

Rec If information can be scrolled vertically, place the column heading in a separate area that does not scroll so that the heading will remain visible.

Fnd If information can be scrolled horizontally, allow the column heading to scroll along with the column it is associated with.

Rec Use a separator to distinguish a column heading from the information in a column.

Rec Capitalize the first letter of the first and last words of a column heading, and all other words except articles, coordinating conjunctions, prepositions, and the "to" in infinitives.

Rec If a column heading is wider than the widest item in its associated column, center the column heading over the column.

Rec If a column heading is narrower than the widest item in its associated column, and the items in the column are left-aligned and of various lengths, align the column heading with the left edge of the column.

Rec If a column heading is narrower than the widest item in its associated column, and the items in the column are right-aligned and of various lengths, align the column heading with the right edge of the column.

Rec If information in a column is of fixed length, center the column heading over the column.

Rec Allow a user to directly edit a column heading in the place where it is displayed.

Fnd If you allow a user to directly edit a column heading, allow the user to edit the column heading by clicking on the text with the mouse selection button.

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Field Prompt" in topic 2.2.35
° "Group Heading" in topic 2.2.43
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.15 Combination Box (Control)

A control that combines the functions of an entry field and a list box. A combination box contains a list of objects or settings choices that a user can scroll through and select from to complete the entry field. Alternatively, a user can type text directly into the entry field. The typed text does not have to match one of the objects or settings choices contained in the list.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a combination box when a user may have to type values that cannot be provided by the product and a set of commonly used settings choices or objects can be provided to assist the user in completing the entry field.

Guidelines

Rec Display the settings choices or objects in an order that is meaningful to a user, such as alphabetic order, numeric order, or chronological order. For example, display a list of printers in alphabetic order.

Fnd In a list that can be scrolled, such as a scrollable list box, do not allow the cursor to wrap.

Rec Make the combination box large enough to display a minimum of six settings choices or objects at a time.

Rec When a user increases the size of the window in which the combination box is displayed, increase the number of settings choices or objects displayed in the combination box.

Rec When a user decreases the size of the window in which the combination box is displayed, decrease the number of settings choices or objects displayed in the combination box to a minimum of six. If the window is sized so that six settings choices or objects cannot be displayed, clip the combination box.

Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a settings choice or object unless the settings choice or object contains an abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.

Rec Display an initial value from the list in the entry field and display the initial value with selected-state emphasis so that typed text will replace the value.

Fnd Provide horizontal or vertical scroll bars, or both, when some of the data is not visible in the combination box.

Essential Related Topics

° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Drop-Down Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.30
° "Drop-Down List (Control)" in topic 2.2.31
° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33
° "List Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.56
° "Scroll Bar" in topic 2.2.97

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Spin Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.113

2.2.16 Container (Control)

A control used to create product-specific containers whose specific purpose is to hold other objects. The operating system provides general purpose containers, such as folders, for use by all products. Products can provide specific containers where needed.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a product-specific container to allow a user to group and view objects in ways that are not provided by the system-provided containers.

Guidelines

Rec Provide data transfer for the objects in a container.

Rec When appropriate, provide additional views, layout, and behavior for a product-specific container.

Rec Allow a container to hold any other object, including other containers.

Rec Provide an Include choice for each view of a container.

Rec Provide a Sort choice for each view of a container.

Rec Provide a status area for contents views of containers.

Rec Display the number of objects in a container near the bottom-lefthand corner of the container's icon, so that both the number and graphic are visible. For example, show the number on a small square background that has a different color than the icon.

Rec Allow a user to turn off the display of the count.

Essential Related Topics

° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Column Heading" in topic 2.2.14
° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23
° "Folder (Object)" in topic 2.2.40
° "Extended Selection" in topic 2.2.34
° "Include (Choice)" in topic 2.2.49
° "In-Use Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.53
° "Object" in topic 2.2.69
° "Primary Window" in topic 2.2.81
° "Sort (Choice)" in topic 2.2.111
° "Status Area (Cue)" in topic 2.2.116
° "Work Area (Object)" in topic 2.2.136

2.2.17 Contextual Help

Help information that is adapted to the current context of a choice, object, or group of choices or objects.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide contextual help for each choice or object that the cursor can be positioned on.

Rec Provide contextual help for each direct-manipulation operation.

Rec Provide contextual help for each object that has a pop-up menu.

Guidelines

Fnd If you provide contextual help for a choice or object, display contextual help for that choice or object when the cursor is on it and a user presses the Help key.

Fnd When a user selects the Help choice from a pop-up menu, display contextual help for the object from which the pop-up menu was requested.

Rec While a user is performing a direct-manipulation operation and presses the Help key, cancel the direct-manipulation operation and display contextual help for that direct-manipulation operation. For example, if a user presses the Help key while moving an object from one container to another by dragging it, display contextual help for the direct-manipulation operation, such as the result of dropping the object on that container.

Fnd If a choice is displayed with unavailable-state emphasis and contextual help is provided, describe in the help why the choice is unavailable and how the user might make the choice available.

Fnd Assign F1 as the Help key.

Essential Related Topics

° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45
° "General Help (Choice)" in topic 2.2.41
° "Help Index (Choice)" in topic 2.2.44
° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54
° "Keys Help" in topic 2.2.55
° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64
° "Using Help (Choice)" in topic 2.2.124

2.2.18 Control


A visual user-interface component that allows a user to interact with data. Controls are usually identified by text; for example, headings, labels in push buttons, field prompts, and titles in windows.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a control in a window to allow a user to interact with information.

Guidelines

Fnd Identify each control or field of controls with a field prompt, a column heading, or a window title, whichever is most appropriate.

Rec Use a label that clearly indicates the control's function.

Rec Immediately update a control when the value it represents changes. For example, if a slider and an entry field are provided to represent the same numerical value, immediately change the slider to represent the value entered into the entry field.

Rec Use the controls provided by the operating environment rather than creating new ones.

Rec Avoid changing the function, interaction technique, or appearance of controls provided by the operating environment.

Rec When a window is sized, adjust the size of the controls. For example, make the entry fields longer or shorter as the window is sized larger or smaller. At some minimal useful size, clip the controls instead of adjusting the size.

Rec See Figures 159 and 160 on page 2.2.18 and Figure 161 for the recommended usage of text and non-text controls.


 ___________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 159. Recommended Usage of Text-Entry Controls 			 |
|_________ __________ _________ __________ _________ __________ __________|
| Control | Number   | Length  | Types of | Shown  | Relative | Selection|
|	  | of	     | of      | Selectabl| As     | Space    | Type     |
|	  | Selectabl| Entry   | Choices  |	   | Used     | Supported|
|	  | Choices  | Field   |	  |	   |	      |		 |
|	  |	     | (chars) |	  |	   |	      |          |
|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|
| Entry   | None     | 60 or   | None 	  | Alphanum|rLow      | Text	 |
| field   |	     | fewer   |	  | 	    |	       |	 |
| (single |	     |	       |	  | 	    |	       |	 |
| line)   |	     |         |	  | 	    |	       |	 |
|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|
| Entry   | None     | Any     | None     | Alphanum|rMedium - | Text	 |
| field   |	     |	       |	  |	    | high     |	 |
| (multipl|-line)    |	       |	  |	    |	       |	 |
|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|
| Combinat|oAny      | 60 or   | Variable | Alphanum|rHigh     | Single  |
| box 	  | number   | fewer   | settings |	    |	       | choice  |
|	  |	     |	       | choices  |	    |	       | in list |
|	  |	     |	       | or	  |	    |	       | and	 |
|	  |	     |         | objects  |	    |	       | text in |
|	  |	     |	       |	  |	    |	       | entry	 |
|	  |	     |	       |	  |	    |	       | field	 |
|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|
| Drop-dow| Any      | 60 or   | Variable | Alphanum|rLow      | Single  |
| combinat|onumber   | fewer   | settings |	    |	       | choice  |
| box     |	     |	       | choices  |	    |	       | in list |
|	  |	     |	       | or	  |	    |	       | and     |
|	  |	     |	       | objects  |	    |	       | text in |
|	  |	     |	       |	  |	    |	       | entry   |
|	  |	     |	       |	  |	    |	       | field   |
|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|
| Spin	  | 20 or    | 20 or   | Settings | Alphanum|rLow      | Single  |
| button  | fewer    | fewer   | choice   |	    |	       | choice  |
| with	  |	     |	       | from an  |	    |	       | in list |
| entry   |	     |	       | ordered  |	    |	       | and 	 |
| field   |	     |	       | list 	  |	    |	       | text in |
|	  |	     |	       |	  |	    |	       | entry 	 |
|	  |	     |	       |	  |	    |	       | field 	 |
|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|__________|_________|


 ___________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 160. Recommended Usage of Non-Text-Entry Controls		 |
|___________ ____________ ____________ ___________ __________ ___________|
| Control   | Number of | Types of   | Shown As  | Relative | Selection |
|	    | Selectable| Choices    |		 | Space    | Type	|
|	    | Choices	|	     |		 | Used     | Supported |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Push      | 1 for	| Fixed      | Alphanumer|cLow 	     | Single 	 |
| button    | each push | action or  | Graphic   |	     |		 |
|	    | button, 6 | routing    |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | or fewer  | choices    |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | per field |	     |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Radio	    | 1 for	| Fixed      | Alphanumer|cMedium    | Single	 |
| button    | each	| setting    |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | radio	| choices    |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | button, 6 |	     |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | or fewer 	|	     |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | per field |	     |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Value set | 20 or 	| Fixed      | Short	 | Medium    | Single 	 |
|	    | fewer 	| settings   | alphabetic|	     |		 |
|	    |		| choices    | Numeric,  |	     |		 |
|	    |		|	     | Graphic 	 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| List box  | Any 	| Variable   | Alphanumer|cMedium -  | Single, 	 |
|	    | number 	| settings   | Graphic	 | High      | Multiple  |
|	    |		| choices or |		 |	     |		 |
|	    |		| objects    |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Drop-down | Any 	| Variable   | Alphanumer|cLow       | Single 	 |
| list 	    | number 	| settings   | Graphic 	 |	     |		 |
|	    |		| choices or |		 |	     |		 |
|	    |		| objects    |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Check box | 1 for 	| Fixed      | Alphanumer|cMedium    | Multiple  |
|	    | each 	| settings   | Graphic   |	     |		 |
|	    | check 	| choices    |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | box, 6 or |	     |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | fewer per |	     |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | field	|	     |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Menu bar  | 6 or	| Fixed      | Alphabetic| Low	     | Single	 |
|	    | fewer	| routing    | Graphic	 |	     |		 |
|	    |		| choices    |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Pull-down | 10 or	| Fixed      | Alphanumer|cLow	     | Single	 |
| menu	    | fewer	| action or  | Graphic	 |	     |		 |
|	    |		| routing    |		 |	     |		 |
|	    |		| choices    |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Cascaded  | 10 or	| Fixed      | Alphanumer|cLow	     | Single	 |
| menu	    | fewer	| action or  | Graphic	 |	     |		 |
|	    |		| routing    |		 |	     |		 |
|	    |		| choices    |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Pop-up    | 10 or	| Fixed      | Alphanumer|cLow	     | Single	 |
| menu	    | fewer	| action or  | Graphic   |	     |		 |
|	    |		| routing    |		 |	     |		 |
|	    |		| choices    |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Slider    | 60 or	| Fixed      | Numeric,  | Low	     | Single	 |
|	    | fewer	| setting in | Graphic	 |	     |		 |
|	    | visible	| a range    |		 |	     |		 |
|	    | increments|	     |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Spin	    | 20 or	| Setting    | Alphanumer|cLow	     | Single	 |
| button    | fewer	| choice     |		 |	     |		 |
| without   |		| from an    |		 |	     |		 |
| entry     |		| ordered    |		 |	     |		 |
| field	    |		| list	     |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Container | Any	| Objects    | Alphanumer|cHigh      | Extended  |
|	    | number	|	     | Graphic	 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|


 ___________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 161. Recommended Usage of Notebook Control 			 |
|___________ ___________ ____________ ___________ ___________ ___________|
| Control   | Number of | Types of   | Shown As  | Relative | Selection |
|	    | Objects	| Objects    |		 | Space    | Type	|
|	    | and	| and	     |		 | Used     | Supported |
|	    | Controls	| Controls   |		 |	     |		 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|
| Notebook  | Any	| Any	     | Alphanumer|cMedium -  | As	 |
|	    | number	| (except    | Graphic 	 | high	     | appropriat|
|	    |		| another    |		 |	     | for each  |
|	    |		| notebook)  |		 |	     | object or |
|	    |		|	     |		 |	     | control	 |
|___________|___________|____________|___________|___________|___________|


Supplemental Related Topics

° "Check Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.9
° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10
° "Column Heading" in topic 2.2.14
° "Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.15
° "Container (Control)" in topic 2.2.16
° "Default Action" in topic 2.2.24
° "Descriptive Text" in topic 2.2.27
° "Drop-Down Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.30
° "Drop-Down List (Control)" in topic 2.2.31
° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33
° "Field Prompt" in topic 2.2.35
° "Group Box" in topic 2.2.42
° "List Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.56
° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59
° "Menu Bar" in topic 2.2.60
° "Notebook (Control)" in topic 2.2.68
° "Push Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.86
° "Radio Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.88
° "Separator" in topic 2.2.104
° "Slider (Control)" in topic 2.2.110
° "Spin Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.113
° "Value Set (Control)" in topic 2.2.125
° "Window" in topic 2.2.128
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129
° "Window Navigation" in topic 2.2.133
° "Window Title" in topic 2.2.135

2.2.19 Copy (Choice)

An action choice that copies a selected object from the object in which it is contained and places the copy on the clipboard.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a Copy choice for all objects for which the user can create a new object of that same type.

Guidelines

Fnd If you provide a Copy choice, and you provide an Edit menu, place the Copy choice in the Edit menu.

Rec If you provide the Copy choice for an object, place the Copy choice in the pop-up menu for the object when the object can currently be copied.

Rec When the Copy choice is selected, create a new object on the clipboard that is an exact copy of the indicated object.

Rec When a user copies an object to the clipboard, do not change the state of the source object.

Rec When a user copies an object to the clipboard, do not change the state of the copied object on the clipboard. For example, do not change the selection state of the object as a result of copying that object to the clipboard.

Fnd Display the Copy choice with unavailable-state emphasis when the selected object cannot be copied to the clipboard or when nothing is selected.

Fnd Assign Ctrl+Insert as the shortcut key combination for the Copy choice.

Fnd Assign "C" as the mnemonic for the Copy menu choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Clipboard" in topic 2.2.12
° "Create (Choice)" in topic 2.2.20
° "Cut (Choice)" in topic 2.2.22
° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32
° "Paste (Choice)" in topic 2.2.74

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23
° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80

2.2.20 Create (Choice)

An action choice that creates a new object and places it on the clipboard. The newly created object will be of the same class as the selected object, and it can contain new information generated during creation.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a Create choice for all objects in an object-oriented environment. For example, provide a Create choice for a printer object in a container to allow a user to create one or more additional printers.

Guidelines

Fnd If you provide a Create choice, and you provide an Edit menu, place the Create choice in the Edit menu.

Rec If you provide the Create choice for an object, place the Create choice in the pop-up menu for the object when a copy of the object can currently be created.

Rec When a user selects the Create choice, create a new object of the same type on the clipboard, copy to it all relevant information from this object, and generate new information if necessary.

Rec If the object for which the Create choice was requested supports reflections, display the Create choice as a routing choice that leads to a cascaded menu with choices for selecting a new object or another appearance of the same object.

Rec When a user creates an object on the clipboard, do not change the state of the source object.

Fnd Display the Create choice with unavailable-state emphasis when a new object cannot be created from the selected object or when nothing is selected.

Fnd Assign Alt+Insert as the shortcut key combination for the Create choice.

Fnd Assign "A" as the mnemonic for the Create menu choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Clipboard" in topic 2.2.12
° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19
° "Cut (Choice)" in topic 2.2.22
° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23
° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32
° "Paste (Choice)" in topic 2.2.74

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29
° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80
° "Reflection (Object)" in topic 2.2.90

2.2.21 Cursor

The symbol cue that indicates the current position of the keyboard-input focus. The keyboard cursors are the selection cursor and the text cursor.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Display a text cursor in text that can be edited or selected and currently has input focus.

Fnd Display a selection cursor in any component (other than text that can be edited) that a user can interact with using the keyboard.

Guidelines

Fnd Display only one cursor at a time.

Rec Show the selection cursor as a dotted outline box around the current object.

Rec Display the text cursor as a vertical bar between characters when a user is in insert mode.

Rec Display the text cursor as background shading behind a character when a user is in replace mode.

Fnd Move the cursor to the pointer position when a user presses the mouse selection button on an object, choice, or text.

Rec Make the cursor visible in addition to any other forms of emphasis that are currently visible on an object while the cursor is on that object. For example, display the cursor and selected-state emphasis on a selected object when the cursor is moved to that object.

Rec Except when scrolling by using the cursor-movement keys, scroll the cursor along with the information, even if that means scrolling the cursor out of sight.

Rec When a user presses any cursor-movement key, keep the cursor in sight, scrolling the information if necessary. For example, if a user is viewing a document and presses the End of Data key, keep the cursor visible while scrolling to the end of the document.

Rec When moving the cursor to a control causes the control to be scrolled into view, scroll as much of the control into view as possible. For example, if moving the cursor to a radio-button field causes scrolling, scroll as much of the radio-button field into view as possible.

Fnd In a component that can be scrolled, such as a scrollable list box, do not allow the cursor to wrap.

Fnd In a component that cannot be scrolled, such as a menu, allow the cursor to wrap at the top and bottom of the component.

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10
° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33
° "Pointer" in topic 2.2.75
° "Text Entry" in topic 2.2.119

2.2.22 Cut (Choice)


An action choice that removes a selected object from the object in which it is contained and places it onto the clipboard.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a Cut choice for all objects.

Guidelines

Fnd If you provide a Cut choice, and you provide an Edit menu, place the Cut choice in the Edit menu.

Rec If you provide the Cut choice for an object, place the Cut choice in the pop-up menu for the object when the object can currently be cut.

Fnd When a user cuts an object, remove it from the object it was in and place it on the clipboard.

Fnd Display the Cut choice with unavailable-state emphasis when the selected object cannot be cut or when nothing is selected.

Fnd Assign Shift+Delete as the shortcut key combination for the Cut choice.

Fnd Assign "T" as the mnemonic for the Cut menu choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Clipboard" in topic 2.2.12
° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19
° "Create (Choice)" in topic 2.2.20
° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23
° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32
° "Paste (Choice)" in topic 2.2.74

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Clear (Choice)" in topic 2.2.11
° "Delete (Choice)" in topic 2.2.25
° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80

2.2.23 Data Transfer


The transmission of data from one object to another. Clipboard operations (cut, copy, create and paste) and direct-manipulation techniques, like dragging, are data-transfer operations.



Guidelines

Rec Do not change the state of a source object or group of objects as a result of a data-transfer operation. For example, if a user copies selected text to the clipboard, do not remove selected-state emphasis from the text when the copying operation is complete.

Rec If the target of a data-transfer operation is an object or group of objects of a different type from the source, then add, insert, or combine the source object into the target object.

Fnd When a container is transferred by dragging the container's icon, transfer the contents of the container along with the container. For example, when a folder is moved or copied to another container, move or copy the folder's contents to that container as well.

Essential Related Topics

° "Clipboard" in topic 2.2.12
° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19
° "Cut (Choice)" in topic 2.2.22
° "Paste (Choice)" in topic 2.2.74
° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80

2.2.24 Default Action


A default action is an action that is performed when a user presses the Enter key, double-clicks the selection button on an object, or performs a direct-manipulation operation. The default action is intended to be the action that a user would most likely want in the given situation.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a default action:

° For double-clicking and dragging of icons
° For a frequently-used action on a view of an object
° Whenever a predefined push button is provided in a window.

Guidelines

Fnd Assign default actions as in Figure 162.


 ___________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 162. Default Actions						 |
|____________________ ____________________ ______________________________|
| Context 	     | User action	 | Default action		|
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| System-menu symbol | Double-click mouse | Close window		 |
|		     | selection button	  |				 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Minimized window   | Double-click mouse | Restore the minimized window |
|		     | selection button	  | to its previous size and	 |
|		     |			  | position			 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Cursor positioned  | Enter key	  | Restore the minimized window |
| on minimized	     |			  | to its previous size and	 |
| window	     |			  | position			 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|


Rec Assign default actions as in Figure 163.


 ___________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 163. Recommended Default Actions				 |
|____________________ ____________________ ______________________________|
| Context 	     | User action	  | Recommended default action  |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Icon 	  	     | Double-click mouse | Open a new window containing |
|	  	     | selection button   | the last displayed view of	 |
|	  	     |			  | an object. If the icon is	 |
|	  	     |			  | currently displayed with	 |
|	  	     |			  | in-use emphasis, surface the |
|	  	     |			  | existing window or open a	 |
|	  	     |			  | new window, depending on the |
|	  	     |			  | type of behavior the user	 |
|	  	     |			  | has specified for the	 |
|	  	     |			  | operating environment.	 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Icon		     | Drag using	  | Move or Copy, depending on  |
|		     | pointing device	  | source and target objects	 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Cursor positioned  | Enter key	  | Open a new window containing |
| on icon 	     |			  | the last displayed view of 	 |
|		     |			  | an object			 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Window containing  | Enter key	  | Perform action assigned to	 |
| a frequently-used  |			  | the frequently-used push	 |
| push button choice |			  | button			 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Window not 	     | Enter key	  | Perform default action	 |
| containing a 	     |			  | assigned for object on which |
| frequently-used    |			  | the cursor is positioned	 |
| push button choice |			  |				 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Information	     | Enter key	  | Close information message	 |
| message	     |			  | window (using the OK push	|
|		     |			  | button)			 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Warning message    | Enter key	  | Perform non-destructive	 |
|		     |			  | action			 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|
| Action message     | Enter key	  | Retry if supported;		 |
|		     |			  | otherwise, perform a	 |
|		     |			  | non-destructive action.	 |
|____________________|____________________|______________________________|


Fnd Provide a visible cue to indicate which push button in a window performs the default action for that window. For example, place a dark border around the push button that performs the default action for that window.

Rec When the cursor is on a push button, make that push button the default for that window.

Rec When the cursor is moved from a field of push buttons, reset the default push button to be the same as it was before the cursor entered that field of push buttons. For example, if a user moves the cursor from the OK push button (the default) to the Help push button (the new default), then moves the cursor to a field of radio buttons, the default push button should again be the OK push button.

Essential Related Topics

° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23
° "Push Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.86
° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29
° "Icon" in topic 2.2.47
° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117
° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.25 Delete (Choice)

An action choice that removes a selected object or group of
objects and compresses the space it occupied.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a Delete choice if an object or group of objects can be removed and the space it occupied in the window can be compressed.

Guidelines

Fnd If you provide a Delete choice, and you provide an Edit menu, place the Delete choice in the Edit menu.

Rec If you provide the Delete choice for an object, place the Delete choice in the pop-up menu for the object when the object can currently be deleted.

Fnd If you provide the Delete choice, display it with unavailable-state emphasis when the selected object or group of objects cannot be removed, the space the selected object or group of objects occupied in the window cannot be compressed, or nothing is selected.

Rec If the object for which the Delete choice is requested supports reflections, display the Delete choice as a routing choice that leads to a cascaded menu with choices for deleting just this reflection or deleting the entire object and all reflections on it.

Fnd When a user selects the Delete choice, move the remaining information closer together so that it closes the space previously occupied by the removed information. For example, if characters are removed from an entry field, move the remaining characters closer together.

Rec Use the default delete folder provided by the operating environment as the destination of the Delete choice for objects represented by icons.

Rec If the destination of the Delete choice is a delete folder, append the label of the Delete choice with the name of the associated delete folder. For example, modify the choice to read Delete to Trash1 when "Trash1" is the name assigned to the delete folder into which the Delete choice will place cleared objects.

Rec If a user changes the name of the delete folder to which deleted choices are placed, immediately update the label of the Delete choice to display the new name of the delete folder.

Fnd If you provide the Delete choice, assign Delete as the shortcut key.

Fnd Assign "D" as the mnemonic for the Delete choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Clear (Choice)" in topic 2.2.11
° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Delete Folder (Object)" in topic 2.2.26

2.2.26 Delete Folder (Object)


A folder that holds objects and that will remove the objects it holds from a user's system. A delete folder could delete objects immediately, or it could allow the user to specify when the objects are to be deleted.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide access to the delete folder provided by the operating environment to allow a user to remove objects from the operating environment.

Guidelines

Rec If a delete folder is provided by the operating environment, support it. For example, allow a user to place your objects in the delete folder provided by the operating environment.

Fnd When a container is placed in a delete folder, place the contents of the container in the delete folder along with the container.

Essential Related Topics

° "Container (Control)" in topic 2.2.16

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Clear (Choice)" in topic 2.2.11
° "Delete (Choice)" in topic 2.2.25
° "Folder (Object)" in topic 2.2.40

2.2.27 Descriptive Text


Text used in addition to a field prompt to provide information about a field.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Use descriptive text to provide additional information about a control or field of controls when other labels are not sufficient to explain its function. For example, describe the required date format for an entry field that will contain a date.

Guidelines

Rec If you provide descriptive text, place it to the right or below the control it describes.

Rec Place descriptive text so that it cannot be confused with a field prompt or column heading. For example, in two columns of controls, align the second column of field prompts to the right of the left edge of the longest descriptive text in the first column of controls as in Figure 164.

Figure 164. Columns of Controls with Descriptive Text

Rec For controls that support more than one type of selection, provide information about the number of items that can be selected. For example, provide descriptive text for list boxes that provide multiple selection, and show in the descriptive text that more than one item can be selected.

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Column Heading" in topic 2.2.14
° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Field Prompt" in topic 2.2.35
° "Group Heading" in topic 2.2.43
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.28 Device (Object)


An object that represents a physical or logical device, such as a printer, mouse, or scanner, that is connected to a user's system. Device objects can be provided by products or by the operating environment.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a device object for each device to which a user has access.

Guidelines

Rec Allow each device object to support data-transfer operations. For example, allow a user to drag and drop objects onto printer, plotter, and film-recorder device objects.

Fnd If you provide access to a device object from a menu and there is more than one device that a user has access to through that device object, allow the user to designate the device to be used. For example from a Print choice, provide a list of printers in a cascaded menu or in a window.

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23
° "Object" in topic 2.2.69

2.2.29 Direct Manipulation

A set of techniques that allow a user to work with an object by dragging it with a pointing device or interacting with its pop-up menu.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide direct manipulation for all objects represented as icons on the workplace.

Guidelines

Fnd When a user presses the Cancel key or when a user drops an object onto the same position it currently occupies, cancel the direct-manipulation operation.

Rec Avoid changing the input focus as a result of a direct-manipulation operation.

Fnd Do not change which window is the active window when a direct-manipulation operation is performed.

Rec Provide contextual help for direct-manipulation operations.

Fnd If you provide contextual help for a direct-manipulation operation, allow a user to display contextual help about the direct-manipulation operation by pressing the Help key.

Rec Allow a user to transfer data through direct manipulation. For example, when a user drags a document to a printer, prepare the document to be printed and schedule it to be printed on that printer.

Fnd During a direct-manipulation operation, display source emphasis on the source object.

Fnd During a direct-manipulation operation, if a target object is in a state where it can receive data as a result of the direct-manipulation operation, display target emphasis on the target object when the pointer is on that object.

Fnd During a direct-manipulation operation, if a target object is in a state where it can receive data as a result of the direct manipulation operation, but cannot receive the object being directly manipulated, display target emphasis and change the pointer when the pointer is over that object. For example, change the pointer to the "do not" pointer.

Rec During a direct-manipulation operation on a single object, drag a copy of the icon or an outline of the object. If an identical image of an icon for that object is not available, substitute an outline of the object's icon.

Rec During a direct-manipulation operation on a group of objects where the spatial relationship between the objects in the group is not relevant for positioning in the view of the target object, such as on the workplace and in folders, drag a generic image of three overlapped objects.

Rec If a direct-manipulation operation is performed on a group of objects and the requested action cannot be performed on all of the objects, perform the requested action on the valid objects and display a message giving completion information.

Rec During a direct-manipulation operation on a group of objects where the spatial relationship between the objects in the group is relevant for positioning in the view of the target object, such as in a composed view of an object, drag the objects while maintaining their relative positions.

Rec When a user drags an image or an outline of an object to perform a copy operation, dim the image or outline as in Figures 165 and 166 on page 2.2.29.

______________________________________________________
| Figure 165. Dragging an Image of an Object |
|________________ ________________________ __________|
| | Single object | Multiple objects |
|________________|________________|__________________|
| Move operation | | |
|________________|________________|__________________|
| Copy operation | | |
|________________|________________|__________________|

_____________________________________________________
| Figure 166. Dragging an Outline of an Object |
|________________ ________________ __________________|
| | Single object | Multiple objects |
|________________|________________|__________________|
| Move operation | | |
|________________|________________|__________________|
| Copy operation | | |
|________________|________________|__________________|

Rec When a user drags an object or group of objects, attach an image or outline of the object or group of objects to the pointer at the spot on the object or within the group of objects where the direct-manipulation operation was initiated.

Fnd When a direct-manipulation operation will result in a predefined action, augment the pointer using the predefined pointer visuals.

Rec When a direct-manipulation operation will result in a product-specific action, augment the pointer to indicate what the resulting action will be.

Rec Provide a create-on-drag setting in the settings view of each object. For example, provide a Create on drag check box choice in an object's settings notebook. When this setting is set on, change the keyboard override of a direct-manipulation operation from the copy function to the create function.

Fnd When the create-on-drag setting is set on, change the object's icon to show this setting by showing the small icon on a notepad background as in Figure 167.

Figure 167. Small Icon on a Notepad Background

Rec If a user drags an object to a device or from a device that is external to the user's environment, such as floppy disk, a printer, or a mail outbasket, assign the data transfer default for a direct-manipulation operation so that the source object's location is left unchanged.

Fnd Allow a user to override the default data transfer for a direct-manipulation operation by pressing a key during a direct-manipulation operation, as listed in Figure 168.

 
________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 168. Keyboard Overrides for Direct-Manipulation Operations	|
|____________________________________ __________________________________|
| Move		 | Shift+Mouse manipulation button			|
|________________|______________________________________________________|
| Create or Copy | Ctrl+Mouse manipulation button			|
|________________|______________________________________________________|
| Note: Ctrl+Mouse manipulation button will perform the create function |
| when the create-on-drag setting is set on for the object; otherwise	|
| it will perform a copy operation.					|
|_______________________________________________________________________|

Essential Related Topics

° "Contextual Help" in topic 2.2.17
° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19
° "Move (Choice)" in topic 2.2.65
° "Pointer" in topic 2.2.75
° "Source Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.112
° "Target Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.118

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23
° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54
° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64
° "Pointing Device" in topic 2.2.77
° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80

2.2.30 Drop-Down Combination Box (Control)

A control that is a combination box in which the list is hidden until a user takes an action to make it visible. A drop-down combination box contains a list of objects or settings choices that a user can scroll through and select from to complete the entry field. Alternatively, a user can type text directly into the entry field. The typed text does not have to match one of the objects or settings choices contained in the list.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Use a drop-down combination box when a window does not have enough space to use a combination box.

Guidelines

Rec Display an initial value from the list in the entry field.

Rec Display the initial value in the entry field with selected-state emphasis so that typed characters will replace the value.

Rec Display the choices or objects in the list in an order that is meaningful to a user, such as alphabetic order, numeric order, chronological order, or some other order. For example, display dates in chronological order.

Fnd In a list that can be scrolled, such as a scrollable list box, do not allow the cursor to wrap.

Rec Display no more than six choices or objects at a time in a drop-down combination box.

Fnd Provide horizontal or vertical scroll bars, or both, when some of the data is not visible in the drop-down combination box.

Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a choice or object name unless the choice or object name contains an abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.

Essential Related Topics

° "Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.15
° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Drop-Down List (Control)" in topic 2.2.31
° "List Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.56

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33
° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54
° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64
° "Text Entry" in topic 2.2.119

2.2.31 Drop-Down List (Control)

A control that is a variation of a list box. A drop-down list only displays one item until the user takes an action to display the other objects or choices. Like a list box, the drop-down list does not allow a user to type information into it.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Use a drop-down list instead of a single selection list box when a choice or object is not changed frequently or when space is so limited that the window does not have enough space to display a list box.

Guidelines

Fnd Display an initial value from the list in an entry field that contains read-only text.

Rec Display the choices or objects in a drop-down list in an order that is meaningful to a user, such as alphabetic order, numeric order, chronological order, or some other order. For example, display modem baud rates in numeric order.

Fnd In a list that can be scrolled, such as a scrollable list box, do not allow the cursor to wrap.

Rec Display no more than six choices or objects at a time in a drop-down list.

Fnd Provide horizontal or vertical scroll bars, or both, when some of the information is not visible in the drop-down list.

Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a choice or object name unless the choice or object name contains an abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.

Essential Related Topics

° "Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.15
° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Drop-Down Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.30
° "First-Letter Cursor Navigation" in topic 2.2.39
° "List Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.56

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54
° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64

2.2.32 Edit Menu


A pull-down menu from the Edit choice on a menu bar that contains the undo choices, the clipboard choices, and choices that affect which objects are selected. The choices in the Edit pull-down menu are common across a wide range of objects.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide the Edit menu when a menu bar is provided in a window and at least two of the following choices are provided: Undo, Redo, Cut, Copy, Create, Paste, Clear, Delete, Find, Select all, and Deselect all.

Rec Provide an Edit menu if you provide undo choices, clipboard choices, or choices that affect the number of objects that are selected.

Guidelines

Fnd When any of the following choices are provided, place them in the following relative order in the Edit menu:

° Undo
° Redo
° --Separator--
° Cut
° Copy
° Create
° Paste
° --Separator--
° Clear
° Delete
° --Separator--
° Find
° Select all
° Deselect all

Rec Provide additional product-specific choices in the Edit menu grouped with other related choices.

Fnd Assign "E" as the mnemonic for the Edit choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Clear (Choice)" in topic 2.2.11
° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19
° "Create (Choice)" in topic 2.2.20
° "Cut (Choice)" in topic 2.2.22
° "Delete (Choice)" in topic 2.2.25
° "Find (Choice)" in topic 2.2.38
° "Paste (Choice)" in topic 2.2.74
° "Select All and Deselect All (Choice)" in topic 2.2.100
° "Undo and Redo (Choice)" in topic 2.2.123

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Selected Menu" in topic 2.2.101

2.2.33 Entry Field (Control)


A control into which a user can type one or more lines of text. Entry fields can be scrolled if more information is available than is currently visible.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide an entry field to allow a user to type values that cannot be supplied by the product in a list of choices.

Rec Provide an entry field containing read-only text when a value is displayed that a user cannot change.

Guidelines

Rec When the length of the data is predictable, such as a date, time, or telephone number, make the entry field wide enough and tall enough to show all of the data of average length.

Rec Display an entry field with a background color different from the background color of the underlying window or an outline color specified by a user for the operating environment. Use the user-specified color setting for entry fields if provided by the operating environment; otherwise, use another related component setting.

Rec To indicate a required entry field, display along the bottom edge of the entry field a thin unbroken line of a solid color specified by the user for the operating environment. For example, with VGA resolution use a one-pel solid green line along the bottom of an entry field.

Rec To indicate an error in the information entered in an entry field, display, along the bottom, left, and right edges of the entry field, a thin unbroken line of a solid color specified by the user for the operating environment. For example, with VGA resolution use a one-pel solid red line on the bottom, left, and right edges of an entry field.

Rec To indicate an entry field containing read-only text, display the entry field text against the normal window background and do not display an outline box around the text. That is, display the entry field text against the normal window background.

 
_________________________________________________ 
| Figure 169. Different Types of Entry Fields   |
|____________________________________ __________|
| Description			     | Example |
|____________________________________|__________|
| Entry field with outline box 	     | 	       |
|____________________________________|__________|
| Entry field with background color  | 	       |
| of entry field		     |		|
|____________________________________|__________|
| Entry field with background color  |         |
| of entry field-- Required	     |		|
|____________________________________|__________|
| Entry field with background color  | 	       |
| of entry field-- Error 	     |		|
|____________________________________|__________|
| Entry field with background color  |         |
| of the underlying window--	     |		|
| Read-only			     |		|
|____________________________________|__________|
| Entry field with background color  | 	       |
| of entry field-- Scrollable	     |		|
|____________________________________|__________|


Fnd Allow a user to scroll data in an entry field when more text can be typed or when more information is available than can be displayed in the entry field at any one time.

Rec When information can be scrolled in an entry field, provide a visible cue to indicate that the information can be scrolled. For example, provide left and right arrow scroll push buttons on an entry field of one line or provide a scroll bar for an entry field of more than one line.

Rec If an entry field allows tabs within the field, allow a user to press Ctrl+Tab to exit the entry field and to move the cursor to the next control in the window.

Rec If an entry field must contain a value, provide an appropriate initial value.

Rec If a user will typically accept the initial value in the entry field or replace it by typing, display the initial value with selected-state emphasis so that the text is replaced by the first typed character.

Essential Related Topics

° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Text Entry" in topic 2.2.119

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.15
° "Drop-Down Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.30
° "Spin Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.113
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129
° "Window Navigation" in topic 2.2.133

2.2.34 Extended Selection


A type of selection optimized for the selection of a single object. A user can extend selection to more than one object, if required.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide extended selection when a user typically performs actions on one object at a time, but can perform actions on more than one object at a time.

Guidelines

Fnd Allow a keyboard user to press Shift+F8 to establish a mode in which the initial deselection is bypassed and the new selected objects are added or removed from the current group of selected objects.

Fnd Allow a user to modify the extended selection by pressing and holding down the Ctrl key while selecting an object or group of objects.

Fnd Design your product so that the results listed in Figure 170 occur during extended selection.

 
__________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 170. Extended Selection Techniques				 |
|____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
| Technique  | Mouse 		 | Keyboard	    | Result		|
|____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
| Point	     | Click mouse	 | With cursor on    |Deselects all	 |
| selection  | selection button	 | object to be      |other objects in	 |
|	     | with pointer on	 | selected, press   |selection scope;	 |
|	     | object to be	 | Ctrl+Spacebar;    |selects single	 |
|	     | selected.	 | also spacebar if  |identified	 |
|	     |			 | spacebar is not   |object.		 |
|	     |			 | used to type a    |			 |
|	     |			 | space.	     |			 |
|____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
| Point-to-endpoint selection						 |
|									 |
|____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
| Area	     | Press mouse	 |Not applicable.    | Deselects all	 |
| (Marquee)  | selection button	 |		     | other objects in	 |
|	     | at the start	 |		     | selection scope;	 |
|	     | point and move	 |		     | selects all	 |
|	     | the pointer to	 |		     | objects contained |
|	     | the end point;	 |		     | within the	 |
|	     | release the mouse |		     | identified area.  |
|	     | selection button	 |		     |			 |
|	     | at the end point. |		     |			 |
|____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
| Range      | Press mouse	 | Press Shift at    | Deselects all	 |
| (Swipe)    | selection button	 | the start point   | other objects in	 |
|	     | at the start	 | and hold while    | selection scope;	 |
|	     | point and move	 | using	     | selects all	 |
|	     | the pointer to	 | cursor-movement   | objects in order	 |
|	     | the end point;	 | keys to move the  | from the		 |
|	     | release the mouse | cursor to the end | identified start	 |
|	     | selection button  | point; release    | point to the	 |
|	     | at the end point. | Shift at end      | identified end	 |
|	     |			 | point.	     | point.		 |
|____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
| Range	     | Click mouse	 | Not applicable.   | Deselects all	 |
| (Click)    | selection button	 |		     | other objects in	 |
|	     | at the start	 |		     | selection scope;	 |
|	     | point; press	 |		     | selects all	 |
|	     | Shift and click	 |		     | objects in order	 |
|	     | the mouse	 |		     | from the		 |
|	     | selection button	 |		     | identified start	 |
|	     | at the end point, |		     | point to the	 |
|	     | then release	 |		     | identified end 	 |
|	     | Shift key.	 |		     | point.		 |
|____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
| Random-point selection						 |
|									 |
|____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
| Random     | Press mouse	 | Not applicable.   | Deselects all	 |
| (Swipe)    | selection button	 |		     | other objects in	 |
|	     | with pointer on	 |		     | selection scope;	 |
|	     | first object to	 |		     | selects		 |
|	     | be selected;	 |		     | individual	 |
|	     | move the pointer	 |		     | objects in the	 |
|	     | over other	 |		     | order the user	 |
|	     | objects to be	 |		     | identified the	 |
|	     | selected; release |		     | objects to be	 |
|	     | mouse selection	 |		     | selected.	 |
|	     | button.		 |		     |			 |
|____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
| Note:									 |
|									 |
| Modifying extended selection						 |
|									 |
| When a user is using a mouse, pressing the Ctrl key while performing a |
| selection technique allows the user to add objects to and remove	 |
| objects from the current group of selected objects by bypassing the	 |
| initial deselection.							 |
|									 |
| In point selection and random-point selection, pressing the Ctrl key	 |
| while selecting an object or group of objects toggles the selection	 |
| state of the first object or group of objects selected and that new	 |
| state becomes the selection state of all objects selected thereafter	 |
| until the Ctrl key is released.					 |
|									 |
| In point-to-endpoint selection, the selection state of the start point |
| is toggled first and that new state becomes the selection state of all |
| objects within the range or area.					 |
|									 |
| In point selection and random-point selection, pressing spacebar	 |
| toggles the selection state of the identified object.			 |
|________________________________________________________________________|


Essential Related Topics

° "Multiple Selection" in topic 2.2.66
° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103
° "Single Selection" in topic 2.2.108

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Automatic Selection" in topic 2.2.7
° "Descriptive Text" in topic 2.2.27
° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50
° "Marquee Selection" in topic 2.2.57
° "Point-to-Endpoint Selection" in topic 2.2.79
° "Point Selection" in topic 2.2.78
° "Status Area (Cue)" in topic 2.2.116

2.2.35 Field Prompt

Text that identifies a field, such as a field of check boxes or
an entry field.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a field prompt for each field unless there is only one field in the window and the window title serves as the field prompt.

Rec Provide a field prompt for each field unless the fields appear in columns and the column headings serve as the field prompts.

Guidelines

Rec Place a field prompt above or to the left of the field it is associated with.

Rec If a field prompt is displayed above a field, align the prompt with the left edge of the field.

Rec In high-volume data-entry windows, consider using right-aligned edges of field prompts next to left-aligned entry fields so that a narrow vertical column of space is left between the field prompts and their associated entry fields to allow a user to quickly scan the choices in the window.

Rec If a field prompt is displayed under a group heading, indent the field prompt to the right of the group heading.

Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a field prompt unless the prompt contains an abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.

Rec Use descriptive text to provide additional information.

Rec Left-align fields of controls along a margin to the right of the longest field prompt in a column.

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Column Heading" in topic 2.2.14
° "Descriptive Text" in topic 2.2.27
° "Group Heading" in topic 2.2.43
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.36 File Menu (Application-Oriented)


A pull-down menu from the File choice on a menu bar that contains choices that affect the object presented in that window.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide a File menu choice in all application-oriented windows that provide a menu bar if any of the File menu choices are provided.

Guidelines

Fnd When the following choices are provided, place them in the following relative order in the File menu:

° New
° Open
° --Separator--
° Save
° Save as
° --Separator--
° Print

Rec Add any product-specific choices, as needed, grouped with other related choices.

Fnd Assign "F" as the mnemonic for the File menu choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59
° "New (Choice)" in topic 2.2.67
° "Open (Choice)" in topic 2.2.70
° "Print (Choice)" in topic 2.2.82
° "Save (Choice)" in topic 2.2.94
° "Save As (Choice)" in topic 2.2.96

Supplemental Related Topics

° "File Menu (Object-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.37
° "Menu Bar" in topic 2.2.60

2.2.37 File Menu (Object-Oriented)


A pull-down menu from a choice labeled with the class name of the object in the window, that contains choices that affect the underlying object presented in that window.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide a File menu choice, object-oriented version, in all object-oriented windows that provide a menu bar if any of the File menu choices are provided.

Guidelines

Fnd Label the menu bar choice with the class-name of the object in the window. For example, for a worksheet object, label the menu-bar choice Worksheet.

Fnd When the following choices are provided, place them in the following relative order in the File menu:

° Open as
° --Separator--
° Save (use only if the save function is not immediate)
 ° --Separator--
 ° Print

Rec Add any product-specific choices, as needed, grouped with other related choices.

Fnd Assign a unique mnemonic for the class name choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59
° "Open As (Choice)" in topic 2.2.71
° "Print (Choice)" in topic 2.2.82
° "Save (Choice)" in topic 2.2.94

Supplemental Related Topics

° "File Menu (Application-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.36
° "Menu Bar" in topic 2.2.60

2.2.38 Find (Choice)

A routing choice that displays an action window that allows a user to search an object displayed in a window. A user can specify the criteria to be used for the search. The find operation searches the current view of the object from which the
Find choice was selected.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a Find choice for each object.

Guidelines

Fnd If you provide a Find choice, and you provide an Edit menu, place the Find choice in the Edit menu.

Rec If you provide the Find choice for an object, place the Find choice in the pop-up menu for the object when the object can currently be searched.

Fnd If you provide the Find choice, provide an action window that allows a user to specify the parameters of the search. For example, allow a user to specify the text to be found, the direction of the search, or sensitivity to text capitalization.

Rec Avoid changing the contents of a window as a result of a find operation, except to scroll the next matching object into sight and to indicate that it matches the search criteria, such as by selecting the matching word.

Rec Avoid removing the Find action window unless a user explicitly requests to remove it, such as by selecting a Close push button.

Rec Always display the Find action window on top of the primary window it is dependent on, even when the Find action window is not the active window.

Rec Avoid opening a new window to display the results of the find operation.

Fnd Assign "F" as the mnemonic for the Find choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Include (Choice)" in topic 2.2.49

2.2.39 First-Letter Cursor Navigation


A selection technique in which users select an object in a list by typing the first character of the object they want to select.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide first-letter cursor navigation in all lists of objects or settings choices, such as details views, list boxes, and drop-down lists.

Guidelines

Fnd When a user types a letter, move the cursor to the next object or settings choice that starts with that letter.

Fnd When a user types a letter that has no valid match, do not move the cursor.

Fnd Allow a user to press either the uppercase or lowercase character to gain access to first-letter cursor navigation.

Essential Related Topics

° "Audible Feedback" in topic 2.2.6
° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Drop-Down List (Control)" in topic 2.2.31
° "List Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.56

2.2.40 Folder (Object)


A container object used to store and organize objects.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a folder to allow a user to store and group objects.

Guidelines

Fnd When a user closes or minimizes a folder, continue to display any window opened on an object contained in that folder.

Rec If folders are provided by the operating environment, support them. For example, allow a user to place your objects into the folders provided by the operating environment and use the folders provided by the operating environment to create product-specific folders.

Rec Provide a settings choice that allows a user to change between a folder and a work area. For example, provide a choice on a check box in the settings view of a folder that allows a user to change the folder into a work area.

Rec If a user changes a folder into a work area, immediately change its icon to that of a work area.

Rec Allow a user to place any object into a folder.

Rec Provide a folder containing sample objects from which users can create new objects. Make the create-on-drag setting the initial setting for the objects in the folder. For example, provide a folder named "New Forms" containing initialized versions of frequently-used forms.

Essential Related Topics

° "Container (Control)" in topic 2.2.16
° "Work Area (Object)" in topic 2.2.136

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Delete Folder (Object)" in topic 2.2.26

2.2.41 General Help (Choice)


An action choice that displays a window containing a brief overview of the function of the window from which the General help choice was selected.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide a General help choice for each Help menu.

Guidelines

Fnd When a user selects the General help choice, display a window containing general help information.

Fnd Assign "G" as the mnemonic for the General help choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45

2.2.42 Group Box


A rectangular box drawn around a group of fields to indicate that the fields are related and to provide a label for the group.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Use a group box only when a group heading or white space does not visually distinguish groups of fields in a window.

Guidelines

Fnd Provide a label for each group box.

Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a label of a group box unless the label contains an abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.

Rec Avoid using a group box around a field of push buttons.

Rec Avoid using a group box around a single field. For example, avoid using a group box around a single list box.

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Group Heading" in topic 2.2.43
° "Separator" in topic 2.2.104
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.43 Group Heading


Text that identifies a set of related fields.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Use a group heading rather than a group box to identify a group of related fields.

Guidelines

Rec Place a group heading above each group of fields.

Rec Indent the fields in each group under their associated group heading.

Rec Left-align group headings vertically with the left edge of other group headings.

Rec Capitalize the first letter of the first and last words of a group heading, and all other words except articles, coordinating conjunctions, prepositions, and the "to" in infinitives.

Rec If a group heading appears in a window that can be scrolled, scroll the heading with the group it identifies.

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Control" in topic 2.2.18
° "Field Prompt" in topic 2.2.35
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.44 Help Index (Choice)

An action choice that displays an alphabetic listing of all help topics within the product or application.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide a Help index choice in each help menu.

Guidelines

Fnd Provide access to keys help from the help index window. For example, provide a Keys help choice in a menu or on a push button in the help index window that allows a user to get keys help.

Fnd Provide access to the help index from every help window.

Rec Follow appropriate indexing conventions (such as printed material conventions) to create a help index.

Rec Indicate which entries in a help index lead to task-oriented help and tutorial help. For example, provide entries for the Copy task and the Copy tutorial.

Rec Place in the help index an entry for each help topic about an object.

Rec Place in the help index an entry for each help topic about a window or choice.

Rec Provide synonyms for each help index entry.

Fnd Allow a user to search the help index. For example, provide a Search routing choice in a menu or on a push button.

Rec When a user specifies a synonym as a search criterion, find the corresponding help topic and display it in a secondary window with a title bar containing the name of the help topic that was found as a match to the synonym. For example, if a user specifies the topic "action bar" as a search criterion, and you've provided help for the topic "menu bar," display help for menu bar in a window entitled "Menu Bar - Help."

Rec Do not include the words "Help for" in index entries. For example, do not label an entry "Help for Cut."

Fnd Assign "I" as the mnemonic for the Help index choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45
° "Keys Help" in topic 2.2.55

2.2.45 Help Menu

A pull-down menu from the Help choice on a menu bar that contains choices that provide information about a window, choice, object, or a task.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide a Help choice in the menu bar of all windows that have a menu bar and provide help.

Guidelines

Fnd When the following choices are provided, place them in the following relative order in the Help menu:

° Help index
° General help
° Using help
° Tutorial
° --Separator--
° Product information

Fnd If you provide other Help choices, place them between the Using help choice and the Product information choice in the Help menu. For example, if you provide a Getting started choice, place it below the Using help choice and above the Product information choice.

Fnd Place a Help choice on a push button in a window if that window does not have a menu bar.

Rec Display help information in a secondary window.

Rec Create the title of a Help window by naming the object or action about which help was requested followed by a dash (-) and the word Help.

Rec If additional wording is helpful in identifying the window, place the extra words after the dash (to the right, left, or both sides of the word Help). For example, label the window MyObject - General Help.

Rec Do not place the title of a help window in the text of the help information; instead, rely on the title bar.

Rec When a user selects a Help choice or presses the Help key, do not change the state or appearance of the object about which help was requested. For example, if a user requests help about a check-box choice, do not select the check-box choice because help was requested.

Rec Place a help window so that it does not cover the object for which help was requested.

Rec Provide help in the form most appropriate and useful to a user. For example, use text, graphics, animation, audio, video, or any other technique or combination of techniques that conveys the information clearly and concisely.

Fnd Assign "H" as the mnemonic for the Help menu choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "General Help (Choice)" in topic 2.2.41
° "Help Index (Choice)" in topic 2.2.44
° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59
° "Product Information (Choice)" in topic 2.2.83
° "Push Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.86
° "Tutorial (Choice)" in topic 2.2.121
° "Using Help (Choice)" in topic 2.2.124

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Contextual Help" in topic 2.2.17
° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54
° "Keys Help" in topic 2.2.55
° "Window Title" in topic 2.2.135

2.2.46 Hide (Choice)


An action choice that removes the window and all associated windows from the workplace.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide a Hide choice for windows in an operating environment that supports the hide function.

Guidelines

Fnd When a Hide function is provided, place a hide button on the title bar of each window that can be hidden.

Rec When a user selects the Hide choice or the hide button, remove the window and all associated windows from the workplace and indicate its hidden status in a window list.

Fnd Assign Alt+F9 as the shortcut key combination for the Hide choice.

Fnd Assign "H" as the mnemonic for the Hide choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "Window List" in topic 2.2.130

Supplemental Related Topics

° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117

2.2.47 Icon

A pictorial representation of an object, consisting of an image, image background, and a label. Small icons can be substituted for regular icons. The small icon in the title bar of a window is another icon for the object that is displayed in the window.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd When a user places an object on the workplace, use an icon to represent that object.

Guidelines

Rec Display a small icon in the title bar of each window that displays a view of an object.

Fnd If you provide a small icon in the title bar of a window, place it immediately to the right of the system-menu symbol.

Fnd If you provide a small icon in the title bar of a window, provide the same direct manipulation functions for it as are available for the object's icon. For example, allow a user to print the object by dragging the small icon in the title bar to a printer.

Fnd If you provide a small icon in the title bar of a window, display target emphasis on the small icon in the title bar during a direct manipulation operation when the object in the window is a valid target of the direct-manipulation operation.

Fnd Provide a label for each icon, except for the small icon in the title bar; in that case, the window title serves as the label for the small icon in the title bar.

Fnd Use the name of the object as the label for the icon.

Rec Design an icon so that it shows the important characteristics of the object it represents and important states of the object. Such characteristics might include:

° Needs attention, for example, when a printer is out of paper
° Threshold reached, for example, when a mailbox is full
° Read-only, for example, when a user does not have the ability to edit a document.
° Security classification, for example, confidential or restricted
° Urgency, for example, when a piece of urgent electronic mail arrives
° Quantity, for example, the number of objects a container holds.

Rec When an icon displays the state or settings of the object it represents, immediately update the icon to indicate changes to the state or settings. For example, if a user selects an object, immediately display selected-state emphasis on the icon that represents the selected object.

Rec If a user changes a folder into a work area or changes a work area into a folder, immediately update the icon of that container to indicate the change.

Rec Allow a user to customize the appearance of an icon. For example, allow a user to change an icon to make it more meaningful, recognizable, or personal.

Fnd Display appropriate emphasis, such as source emphasis, target emphasis, selected-state emphasis, and in-use emphasis, when a user interacts with an icon. For example, display an object's icon with in-use emphasis when a user displays a view of that object in a window.

Fnd Do not show in-use emphasis on small icons used in the title bar.

Fnd Do not display a count of the number of objects in a container on a small icon.

Rec Do not use an algorithmically reduced copy of the original icon as a small icon. Instead, use a separate graphic to display a small icon that shows fewer characteristics so that the characteristics can be more easily distinguished.

Rec Allow a user to rename an object where that object is displayed.

Rec If you allow a user to edit an icon's label, provide text entry techniques that allow the user to type, select, and manipulate the text of the icon's label.

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Container (Control)" in topic 2.2.16
° "In-Use Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.53
° "Object" in topic 2.2.69
° "Selected-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.102
° "Source Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.112
° "Target Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.118
° "Text Entry" in topic 2.2.119

2.2.48 Inactive Window


A window that does not have the input focus. The inactive window is indicated by the type of emphasis displayed on its title bar and border, as specified by the operating environment.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Make any window that does not currently have the input focus an inactive window.

Guidelines

Fnd Change the color of the title bar and window border of an inactive window to the color specified in the operating environment.

Fnd Do not continue to display the cursor an inactive window.

Fnd Display any appropriate emphasis types in an inactive window. For example, display selected-state emphasis for selected objects displayed in an inactive window.

Essential Related Topics

° "Active Window" in topic 2.2.5
° "Input Focus" in topic 2.2.52

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.49 Include (Choice)

A routing choice that displays an action window that allows a user to specify characteristics of a subset of objects so that only the subset is displayed in the window.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide an Include choice when it is useful to identify subsets of objects contained within the object from which the Include choice is selected.

Guidelines

Fnd If you provide an Include choice, and you provide a View menu, place the Include choice in the View menu.

Rec If you provide the Include choice for an object, place the Include choice in the pop-up menu for the object when the object can currently be included.

Fnd Allow a user to specify the objects that are to be shown in the view.

Fnd Display the Include settings in an action window that is dependent on the window from which the Include choice is selected.

Fnd Display the results of the Include operation in the window from which the Include choice was selected.

Rec In the window in which the results of the Include operation will be displayed, provide a status area to list the criteria used to create the subset. For example, indicate the number of objects displayed, as well as the total number of objects in the container.

Rec When an object is added to another object on which an included view is displayed and in which the include criteria are being maintained for that view, and the object being added matches the include criteria for the subset, place the object being added in its correct position in the subset. For example, if a document is added to a folder and that document matches the current include criteria for that folder, the document will be visible in the current view; if the document does not match the include criteria, the document is added to the folder, but the document will not be visible in the current view.

Rec When a user performs an include operation on an object, apply the include criteria to the entire object, not just the contents of the current view of the object.

Fnd Assign "I" as the mnemonic for the Include choice.

Essential Related Topics

° "View Menu" in topic 2.2.126

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Find (Choice)" in topic 2.2.38
° "Status Area (Cue)" in topic 2.2.116

2.2.50 Information Area

A part of a window where information appears about the object or choice that the cursor is on. Information about the normal completion of a process can also appear in the information area.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Rec Provide an information area for each window.

Guidelines

Rec When the cursor is on a choice, briefly describe in an information area what will happen when a user selects that choice.

Rec When the cursor is on an object, briefly suggest in an information area:

° The default action, if any.
° The most appropriate action, if any.
° How to perform available actions on the object.

Rec Place information about the normal completion of a process in the information area. For example, indicate in an information area that a file was successfully saved.

Rec For contents views that provide a selection type other than extended selection, place in the information area information about the number of items that can be selected. For example, for single selection display text saying, "Select at most one."

Rec Make the information area the same width as the window.

Rec Make the information area no taller than necessary to accommodate brief, but meaningful, information. For example, when using text, accommodate only two lines of text.

Rec If you provide an information area, place it at the bottom of a window.

Rec If you provide an information area and there is a horizontal scroll bar in the window, place the information area below the scroll bar and above the window border.

Rec Use a separator to separate the information area from the rest of the window. For example, use a solid line or a horizontal scroll bar to separate the information area from the rest of the window.

Rec If you provide an information area, do not scroll the information area when the window's contents are scrolled.

Rec If a user attempts to select a choice that is currently displayed with unavailable-state emphasis, indicate in the information area that the choice cannot be selected and that requesting help will explain why it is unavailable.

Fnd If you provide an information area, allow a user to turn the display of the information area on or off. For example, provide a settings choice in the View pull-down menu or on a page in a settings notebook that allows a user to turn the display of the information area on or off.

Rec Remove information from the information area as soon as it is no longer relevant to the current state of the window or the current position of the cursor.

Rec Do not allow a user to interact with the information area, except to copy information from the information area.

Rec Do not use an information area to display information that a user must see; display that type of information in a message.

Rec If a user reduces the width of a window with an information area and the information can wrap in the information area, wrap the information; otherwise, clip the information area.

Rec Do not provide scroll bars for an information area and do not allow a user to scroll information in the information area.

Essential Related Topics

° "Information Message" in topic 2.2.51
° "Separator" in topic 2.2.104

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10
° "Clipboard" in topic 2.2.12
° "Progress Indicator" in topic 2.2.84
° "Status Area (Cue)" in topic 2.2.116
° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.51 Information Message


A message that indicates that a condition has occurred that the user can do nothing about. The only actions available to the user are to acknowledge the message or get help.



FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Display an information message when a situation has occurred that the user can do nothing about or when there is additional information about the status of normal completion. If a progress indicator is currently displayed in its own window, display the message information in the progress indicator window.

Guidelines

Fnd Provide an OK push button that allows a user to acknowledge the information displayed in the information message and remove the message.

Fnd Display the i symbol in each information-message window.

Essential Related Topics

° "Action Message" in topic 2.2.3
° "Message" in topic 2.2.61
° "Progress Indicator" in topic 2.2.84
° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87
° "Warning Message" in topic 2.2.127

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50

2.2.52 Input Focus

A state of a component, identified by the existence of a cursor that indicates where the results of a user's interaction with the keyboard will appear.

FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.

When to Use

Fnd Provide input focus for the component that can currently receive input from the keyboard.

Guidelines

Rec When a user selects a choice that displays a window, move the input focus to that window unless the user has switched input focus to another window. When a window is closed, return the input focus to where it was before that window was opened, if possible.

Rec When a user opens a window but switches input focus to another window before the requested window is displayed, do not display the previously requested window on top of the window that currently has focus.

Rec When a user presses the mouse selection button, move the input focus to the pointer position or to the closest part of the window that can receive the input focus.

Rec When an inactive window becomes active as a result of a technique that does not explicitly specify the position of the cursor, redisplay the cursor in its previous position.

Rec When a user presses the mouse menu button, move input focus to the pop-up menu.

Rec Avoid changing the input focus as a result of a direct-manipulation operation.

Rec When a user presses the Switch Between Associated Windows key, move the input focus between windows displayed from the same object. For example, when a user presses Alt+F6, move the input focus from a primary window to an associated secondary window.

Rec When a user presses the Switch Between Unassociated Windows key, move the input focus between the groups of associated windows displayed from different objects. For example, when a user presses Alt+Esc, move the input focus from a window to an unassociated window.

Essential Related Topics

° "Active Window" in topic 2.2.5
° "Inactive Window" in topic 2.2.48

Supplemental Related Topics

° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21
° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54
° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64
° "Window Navigation" in topic 2.2.133

2.2.53 In-Use Emphasis (Cue)



@@@@@ A visible cue that indicates that a window is open on an object.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd When a user opens a window on an object represented by an icon,
 display in-use emphasis on that object's icon.




Guidelines


Fnd Remove in-use emphasis from an object's icon when all windows
 containing a view of that object have been removed from the
 user's workplace.


Rec Display in-use emphasis as diagonal stripes behind each
 appearance of an object's icon.


Fnd Do not display in-use emphasis on the small icon when it is on
 the title bar.


Fnd Do not change the behavior of an object when it is in use. For
 example, allow a user to open additional windows by
 double-clicking its icon with the pointing device.




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Icon" in topic 2.2.47

2.2.54 Keyboard




A device, consisting of systematically arranged keys, that
allows a user to type information, move the cursor, or select
functions assigned to keys.


FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide access to all functions of an object using equivalent,
 though not necessarily identical, keyboard and pointing device
 techniques.




Guidelines


Fnd Use the Ctrl, Shift, and Alt keys only to modify the function of
 other keys or key combinations on the keyboard.


Rec Use the Alt key only to provide access to mnemonics.


Fnd If the functions listed in Figure 171 and Figure 172 are
 provided, assign them to the keys listed in the table. Do not
 assign these functions to other keys unless a user reassigns
 them.




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 171. Keyboard Functions and Key Engravings |
|_____________ ______________ ___________________________________________|
| Function | Key | Description |
 | | Engraving | |
 | | (US | |
 | | Keyboard) | |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Backspace | __(Backspace| Deletes one character to the left of the |
 | | | cursor. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Backtab | Shift+Tab|__| Moves the cursor to the previous field. |
 | | (Backtab) | The cursor is positioned either on the |
 | | | previous choice in that field or on the |
 | | | currently set choice in that field. The |
 | | | cursor moves from right to left and |
 | | | bottom to top. At the top-leftmost |
 | | | field, the cursor moves to the |
 | | | bottom-rightmost field. Within an |
 | | | entry field, backtab moves the cursor to |
 | | | the character position defined by the |
 | | | previous tab stop. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Beginning | Ctrl+Home | Moves the cursor to the top-leftmost |
 | of data | | position in the current field. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Beginning | Home | Moves the cursor to the leftmost choice |
 | of line | | in a group of choices, or to the |
 | | | beginning of the current line in an entry |
 | | | field. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Cancel | Esc | Removes the window without applying any |
 | | | changes that were not previously applied |
 | | | in that window. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Cancel | Esc | Cancels the direct manipulation |
 | direct | | operation. |
 | manipulation| | |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Create | Alt+Insert | Creates a new object, similar to the |
 | | | selected object, and places it on the |
 | | | clipboard |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Clear | Delete or no | Removes selected object or group of |
 | | assignment | objects from view without compressing the |
 | | (see Note) | space previously occupied by the object |
 | | | or group of objects. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Close | Alt+F4 | Closes active window. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Contextual | F1 | Displays contextual help for the choice, |
 | help | | object, control, or group of choices, |
 | | | objects, or controls relative to the |
 | | | current context, such as the cursor |
 | | | position or the process currently in |
 | | | progress. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Copy | Ctrl+Insert | Produces a duplicate of the selected |
 | | | object or group of objects and places it |
 | | | on the clipboard. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Cut | Shift+Delete | Removes the selected object or group of |
 | | | objects and copies it to the clipboard. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Default | __| Enter | Performs the default action for the |
 | action | or Enter (on | control the cursor is positioned on. |
 | | numeric | |
 | | keypad), | |
 | | depending on | |
 | | the control | |
 | | the cursor | |
 | | is on | |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Delete | Delete (see | Removes selected object or group of |
 | | Note) | objects from view and compresses the |
 | | | space previously occupied by the object |
 | | | or group of objects. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Deselect | Ctrl+\ | Removes selected-state emphasis from all |
 | all | | objects in the active window. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Display | Alt+ (Down | Displays the list for the drop-down list |
 | drop-down | Arrow) | or the drop-down combination box. |
 | list or | | |
 | drop-down | | |
 | combination | | |
 | box | | |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | End of data | Ctrl+End | Moves the cursor to the bottom-rightmost |
 | | | position in the current field. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | End of line | End | Moves the cursor to the rightmost choice |
 | | | in a group of choices, or to the end of |
 | | | the current line in an entry field. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Extend | Shift+cursor-| Extends the selection in the direction in |
 | selection | movement key | which the cursor is moved. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | General | F2 (in a | Displays a brief overview of each action |
 | help | Help window) | or task, or both, that a user can perform |
 | | | within the window. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Help index | F11 (in a | Displays an alphabetic listing of help |
 | | Help window) | topics for an object or a product. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Hide | Alt+F9 | Removes the window and all associated |
 | | | windows from the screen. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Keys help | F9 (in a | Displays a listing of all the key |
 | | Help window) | assignments for an object or a product. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Maximize | Alt+F10 | Enlarges the window to its largest |
 | | | possible size. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Minimize | Alt+F9 | Reduces the window to its smallest |
 | | | possible size and removes all of the |
 | | | windows associated with that window from |
 | | | the screen. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Move | Alt+F7 | Allows a user to move a window to a |
 | | | different location. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Move cursor | Arrow keys | Moves the cursor left, right, up, or |
 | | | down. At the last choice, the cursor |
 | | | wraps. For example, at the bottom-most |
 | | | choice, the cursor wraps to the top-most |
 | | | choice to the right. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | New line | __| Enter | Performs the default action for the |
 | | | control the cursor is positioned on. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Page down | Page Down | A scrolling action that displays |
 | | | information below the currently visible |
 | | | window area. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Page left | Ctrl+Page Up | A scrolling action that displays |
 | | | information to the left of the currently |
 | | | visible window area. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Page right | Ctrl+Page | A scrolling action that displays |
 | | Down | information to the right of the currently |
 | | | visible window area. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Page up | Page Up | A scrolling action that displays |
 | | | information above the currently visible |
 | | | window area. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Paste | Shift+Insert | Copies the contents of the clipboard into |
 | | | an object at the specified location. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Pop-up menu | Shift+F10 | Displays a pop-up menu for the indicated |
 | | | object or group of selected objects. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Redo | Shift+Alt+ | Reverses the effect of the last applied |
 | | __(Backspace| undo action. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Refresh now | F5 | Updates the window to reflect the |
 | | | underlying data. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Restore | Alt+F5 | Returns the window to the size it was and |
 | | | the position it was in before the user |
 | | | minimized or maximized the window. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Select all | Ctrl+/ | Selects all objects in active window. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Select | Use Spacebar | Selects object or choice on which cursor |
 | object or | if it is not | is positioned. |
 | choice on | assigned to | |
 | which | any other | |
 | cursor is | function; | |
 | positioned | otherwise, | |
 | | use | |
 | | Ctrl+Spacebar| |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Size | Alt+F8 | Allows a user to change the size of the |
 | | | window. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Switch | Alt+F6 | Changes the active window within a group |
 | between | | of related windows. |
 | associated | | |
 | windows | | |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Switch | Insert | Toggles between insert and replace modes. |
 | between | | |
 | insert and | | |
 | replace | | |
 | modes in | | |
 | text entry | | |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Switch | Alt+Esc | Changes the input focus between the |
 | between | | groups of associated windows displayed |
 | unassociated| | from different objects (if more than one |
 | windows | | object is displayed by an object). |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Switch to | F10 | Moves the cursor from within a window to |
 | and from | | its menu bar or from the menu bar to |
 | menu bar | | within the window. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Switch | F6 | Moves the cursor in a clockwise direction |
 | window pane | | from one window pane to the next. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | System menu | Shift+Esc | Displays system menu. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Tab | Tab__ÿ| | Moves the cursor to the next field. The |
 | | | cursor is positioned either on the first |
 | | | choice in that field or on the currently |
 | | | set choice in that field. The cursor |
 | | | moves from left to right and top to |
 | | | bottom. At the bottom-rightmost field, |
 | | | the cursor moves to the top-leftmost |
 | | | field. |
 | | | |
 | | | Within an entry field, tab moves the |
 | | | cursor to the character position defined |
 | | | by the next tab stop. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Toggle in | Shift+F8 | Toggles in or out of add mode when |
 | or out of | | extended selection is provided for a |
 | add mode | | view. The initial deselection is |
 | when in | | bypassed and the new selected objects are |
 | extended | | added or removed from the current group |
 | selection | | of selected objects. |
 | mode | | |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Tutorial | Shift+F2 (in | Displays online educational information. |
 | | a Help | |
 | | window) | |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Undo | Alt+Backspace| Reverses the action of the most recently |
 | | | performed user action. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Using help | Shift+F10 | Displays help information that describes |
 | | (in a Help | how to use the help facility. |
 | | window) | |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Window list | Ctrl+Esc | Displays the window list window from the |
 | | | system menu. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Word left | Ctrl+_ | Moves the cursor to the beginning of the |
 | | (Left Arrow) | word to the left of the cursor. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Word right | Ctrl+_ÿ | Moves the cursor to the end of the word |
 | | (Right | to the right of the cursor. Includes any |
 | | Arrow) | trailing space characters. |
 |_____________|______________|___________________________________________|
 | Note: Assign the Delete key to either the Delete or Clear function, |
 | if only one is provided. If both Delete and Clear functions are |
 | provided, assign the Delete key to the Delete function. |
 |________________________________________________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 172. Keys to Functions |
|_____________ ______________ ______________ ______________ _____________|
| Key | Key Only | Alt+Key | Ctrl+Key | Shift+Key |
 | Engraving | | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F1 | Display | | | |
 | | contextual | | | |
 | | help | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F2 | In a Help | | | In a Help |
 | | window, | | | window, |
 | | display | | | display |
 | | General help | | | Tutorial |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F4 | | Close | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F5 | Refresh now | Restore | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F6 | Switch | Switch from | | |
 | | window pane | a window to | | |
 | | | an | | |
 | | | associated | | |
 | | | window | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F7 | | Move | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F8 | | Size | | Toggles |
 | | | | | between in |
 | | | | | or out of |
 | | | | | add mode, |
 | | | | | when in |
 | | | | | extended |
 | | | | | selection |
 | | | | | mode |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F9 | In a Help | Minimize or | | |
 | | window, | Hide | | |
 | | display Keys | | | |
 | | help | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F10 | Switch to | Maximize | | Display |
 | | menu bar. | | | pop-up |
 | | Places the | | | menu. In a |
 | | cursor on | | | Help |
 | | the menu | | | window, |
 | | bar. | | | display |
 | | | | | Using help |
 | | | | | window |
 | | | | | instead. |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | F11 | In a Help | | | |
 | | window, | | | |
 | | display Help | | | |
 | | index window | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | \ | | | Deselect all | |
 | (Backslash) | | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | __ | Backspace | Undo | | |
 | (Backspace)(|) | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Delete | Delete or | | | Cut |
 | | Clear | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | (Down | Moves cursor | Display | | Extends |
 | Arrow) | down, if | drop-down | | selection |
 | | possible | list or | | to the |
 | | | drop-down | | current |
 | | | combination | | character |
 | | | box. | | position on |
 | | | | | the line |
 | | | Moves from | | below the |
 | | | notebook tab | | current |
 | | | or page push | | line |
 | | | button to | | |
 | | | notebook | | |
 | | | page. | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | End | End of line | | End of data | Extend |
 | | | | | selection |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | __| Enter | Default | | Default | New line |
 | | action or | | action | |
 | | new line | | | |
 | | (when in | | | |
 | | text) | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Enter (on | Default | | | |
 | numeric | action. | | | |
 | keypad) | Never new | | | |
 | | line. | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Esc | Cancel or | Switch from | Window list | Display |
 | | cancel | a window to | | system menu |
 | | direct | an | | |
 | | manipulation | unassociated | | |
 | | | primary | | |
 | | | window | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Home | Beginning of | | Beginning of | Extend |
 | | line | | data | selection |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Insert | Switch | Create | Copy | Paste |
 | | between | | | |
 | | insert and | | | |
 | | replace | | | |
 | | modes in | | | |
 | | text entry | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | _ (Left | Moves cursor | | Word left | Extends |
 | Arrow) | left, if | | | selection |
 | | possible | | | one |
 | | | | | character |
 | | | | | position to |
 | | | | | the left |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Page Down | Page down | Move to next | Page right | Extend |
 | | | page in | | selection |
 | | | notebook | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Page Up | Page up | Move to | Page left | Extend |
 | | | previous | | selection |
 | | | page in | | |
 | | | notebook | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | _ÿ (Right | Moves cursor | | Word right | Extends |
 | Arrow) | right, if | | | selection |
 | | possible | | | one |
 | | | | | character |
 | | | | | position to |
 | | | | | the right |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Spacebar(2) | Toggles the | Display | Always | Inserts a |
 | | selection | system menu | toggles the | space where |
 | | state of the | | selection | space is |
 | | object or | | state of the | allowed |
 | | choice on | | object or | |
 | | which the | | choice on | |
 | | cursor is | | which the | |
 | | positioned | | cursor is | |
 | | | | positioned | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | / (Slash) | | | Select all | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Tab__ÿ|(3) | Moves cursor | | Moves to the | Moves to |
 | | to next | | next control | the |
 | | control; in | | when the | previous |
 | | an entry | | cursor is | tab |
 | | field, moves | | currently in | position or |
 | | to next tab | | an entry | to the |
 | | position. | | field or in | previous |
 | | | | a notebook. | control. |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | " (Up | Moves cursor | Moves focus | | Extends |
 | Arrow) | up, if | from | | selection |
 | | possible | notebook | | to the |
 | | | page to | | current |
 | | | notebook tab | | character |
 | | | or page push | | position on |
 | | | button. | | the line |
 | | | | | above the |
 | | | | | current |
 | | | | | line |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Note: |
 | |
 | 1. Pressing Shift+Alt+__ (Backspace) performs the Redo action. |
 | |
 | 2. Use Spacebar if it is not assigned to any other function; |
 | otherwise, use Ctrl+Spacebar. |
 | |
 | 3. Ctrl+Shift+Tab__ÿ| moves to the previous control when the cursor |
 | is currently in an entry field. |
 |________________________________________________________________________|






Supplemental Related Topics


° "Clear (Choice)" in topic 2.2.11


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19


° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21


° "Delete (Choice)" in topic 2.2.25


° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59


° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103


° "Shortcut Key" in topic 2.2.106


° "Text Entry" in topic 2.2.119


° "Window Navigation" in topic 2.2.133

2.2.55 Keys Help




An entry in the help index that displays a window containing a
listing of key assignments and pointing-device button
assignments, if applicable, for the object or application from
which keys help was requested.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a Keys help choice in the help index.




Guidelines


Rec List in keys help all key assignments for the window from which
 the user requested help.


Rec Indicate to a user which keys are available in the current state
 of the window.


Rec If a pointing device is attached to a user's system, list in
 keys help the functions assigned to the pointing device buttons.


Rec List shortcut key assignments in keys help.


Rec If a user adds or changes key assignments, list the new or
 changed assignments in keys help along with any unchanged
 assignments.




Essential Related Topics


° "Help Index (Choice)" in topic 2.2.44


° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Shortcut Key" in topic 2.2.106

2.2.56 List Box (Control)




A control that contains a list of objects or settings choices
that a user can select. List boxes support single or multiple
selection.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a list box to display a list of settings choices or objects,
 but not both, in which the number of choices or objects may
 vary.




Guidelines


Rec Display the settings choices or objects in a list box in an
 order that is meaningful to a user, such as alphabetic order,
 numeric order, chronological order, or some other order. For
 example, display modem baud rates in numeric order.


Rec Make a list box large enough to display six to eight settings
 choices or objects at a time, or all settings choices or objects
 if fewer than six.


Fnd In a list that can be scrolled, such as a scrollable list box,
 do not allow the cursor to wrap.


Fnd Provide horizontal or vertical scroll bars, or both, when some
 information is not visible in the list box.


Rec Make list boxes at least wide enough to display the choices or
 objects of average width.


Rec When a user increases the size of the window in which the list
 box is displayed, increase the number of settings choices or
 objects displayed in the list box.


Rec When a user decreases the size of the window in which the list
 box is displayed, decrease the number of settings choices or
 objects displayed in the list box to a minimum of six. If the
 window is sized so that six settings choices or objects cannot
 be displayed, clip the list box.


Rec When a list box provides multiple selection, place in the
 descriptive text for the list box information about the number
 of items that can be selected. For example, add text and a
 counter near the list box that dynamically shows the number of
 items selected, such as "3 selected."


Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a choice
 or object name unless the choice or object name contains an
 abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be
 capitalized.




Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Drop-Down List (Control)" in topic 2.2.31




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Column Heading" in topic 2.2.14


° "Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.15


° "Drop-Down Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.30


° "Field Prompt" in topic 2.2.35


° "First-Letter Cursor Navigation" in topic 2.2.39


° "Scroll Bar" in topic 2.2.97


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103

2.2.57 Marquee Selection




A technique that allows a user to select objects by drawing a
rectangle around them with a pointing device.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide marquee selection for all multiple selection and
 extended selection lists.




Guidelines


Fnd In multiple or extended selection:


° Using the mouse, when the user presses the mouse selection
button on white space and moves the pointer, begin drawing a
marquee rectangle that starts at the point where the mouse
selection button was pressed and extends to the current
mouse pointer location. As objects are encompassed by the
marquee rectangle they are selected. Marquee selection is
completed when the mouse selection button is released.


Fnd Display the marquee box only during selection.


Fnd Display selected-state emphasis on each object as soon as the
 object is completely contained within the marquee box.


Fnd Display selected-state emphasis on each icon as soon as the
 icon's graphic is completely contained within the marquee box.


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Point-to-Endpoint Selection" in topic 2.2.79


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103

2.2.58 Maximize (Choice)




An action choice that enlarges a window to the largest size
possible for that view or to the size of the workplace.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a Maximize choice when a user can change the size of a
 window.




Guidelines


Fnd Place the Maximize choice in the system menu.


Fnd Display the Maximize choice with unavailable-state emphasis when
 the window is maximized.


Fnd Provide a maximize button on the title bar when the size of a
 window can be changed and the window is not currently maximized.


Fnd When a user selects the Maximize choice or clicks on the
 maximize button, enlarge the window to the largest size possible
 for the current view or to the size of the workplace, whichever
 is smaller.


Fnd Change a maximize button to a restore button when a window is
 currently maximized.


Fnd Before maximizing a window, save its state, including its size
 and position for use when the window is restored.


Fnd Assign Alt+F10 as the shortcut key combination for the Maximize
choice.


Fnd Assign "X" as the mnemonic for the Maximize choice.


Essential Related Topics


° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Minimize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.62


° "Restore (Choice)" in topic 2.2.92


° "Size (Choice)" in topic 2.2.109

2.2.59 Menu (Control)




A list of action, routing, and settings choices. The types of
menus are the menu bar, pull-down menu, cascaded menu, and
pop-up menu.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a menu to present action, routing, or settings choices that
 a user can select while performing tasks.




Guidelines


Fnd When a user selects a routing choice that leads to a menu,
 always display the menu even if all of the choices in it are
 unavailable.


Fnd Do not display unavailable-state emphasis on routing choices
 that lead to pull-down menus or cascaded menus.


Fnd Display unavailable-state emphasis on action and settings
 choices that cannot be selected in the current context.


Fnd Allow the cursor to wrap at the top and bottom of a menu.


Fnd Except in the Selected menu, a pop-up menu, or when a user
 switches between Full menus and Short menus, do not add or
 remove choices from a menu to indicate availability of choices.
 Instead, display unavailable choices with unavailable-state
 emphasis.


Fnd If a choice is never available to a particular user, do not
 display it in a menu, and do not save space for it in a menu.


Rec Place related choices together.


Rec Use separators to distinguish groups of related choices.


Rec Place product-specific choices either following a group of
 related predefined choices or at the bottom of a menu.


Rec Keep the relative order of identical choices the same among
 different menus. For example, keep the order of the Cut, Copy,
Create and Paste choices the same in the Edit pull-down menu and
 the pop-up menu for an object.


Rec Use graphics, text, or both for each choice in a menu depending
 on which best identifies the choice. For example, a menu for a
 drawing product could be made up of graphic fill-patterns rather
 than text.


Rec Dynamically add text or graphics to a choice to make the meaning
 of that choice clearer in a given context. For example, change
 the name of the Undo choice to Undo typing. This clarifies the
 meaning and differentiates the choice from Undo delete.


Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a name of
 a choice in a menu unless the name contains an abbreviation,
 acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.


Rec Avoid using settings choices in menus unless a user specifically
 requests to place settings choices in menus. Put settings
 choices in a notebook control in a settings view for the object
 instead.


Rec If a menu contains a group of settings choices that are not
 mutually exclusive, display a check mark to the left of each
 choice that has been selected. Remove the check mark when the
 choice is deselected.


Rec If a menu contains a group of settings choices that are mutually
 exclusive, display unavailable-state emphasis on the choice that
 currently applies to the object. Remove the unavailable-state
 emphasis when the choice no longer applies to the object.


Rec Place at least two choices in a menu.


Rec Avoid placing more than 10 choices in a menu. Use cascaded
 menus to reduce the number of choices in a menu.


Rec Provide a shortcut key for each frequently used choice in a
 pull-down menu or cascaded menu.


Fnd Provide the predefined mnemonic for each predefined textual
 choice in a menu.


Fnd Provide a unique mnemonic for each product-specific textual
 choice in a menu, unless no meaningful unique mnemonic can be
 found.




Essential Related Topics


° "Cascaded Menu" in topic 2.2.8


° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10


° "Menu Bar" in topic 2.2.60


° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63


° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80


° "Pull-Down Menu" in topic 2.2.85


° "Shortcut Key" in topic 2.2.106


° "Short Menus and Full Menus (Choice)" in topic 2.2.107


° "Unavailable-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.122

2.2.60 Menu Bar




The area near the top of a window, below the title bar and above
the rest of the window, that contains routing choices that
display pull-down menus. Typically, a menu-bar choice is a
single word.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a menu bar when a window will provide more than six
 action choices or routing choices. Also provide a menu bar if
 you provide the functions available in the File, Selected, Edit,
or View menus.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide a menu bar, place on it only routing choices that
 lead to pull-down menus.


Fnd If a menu bar is not provided in a window displaying a view of
 an object, place all action and routing choices on push buttons
 in that window, except for those choices that appear on the
 system menu.


Rec Allow a user to turn the display of the menu bar on and off.


Fnd Provide the following choices on the menu bar, in the relative
 order shown, if you provide any of the choices listed in their
 associated menus:


° File (Object-oriented) or File (Application-oriented)
 ° Selected
° Edit
° View
° Options (Application-oriented)
 ° Windows
° Help


Rec If you provide choices that do not logically fit within any of
 the predefined menus, such as the Edit menu or the View menu,
 provide product-specific menu bar choices that lead to menus
 that logically group your product-specific choices.


Fnd Add any product-specific menu bar choices between the View and
 Help menu-bar choices. If a View choice is not provided, place
 product-specific menu-bar choices between the last standard
 menu-bar choice that is provided and the Help choice.


Fnd If a menu-bar choice can never be selected by a particular user,
 do not display it on the menu bar, and do not save space for it
 on the menu bar.


Fnd When a user selects a choice on a menu bar, display the
 pull-down menu associated with that choice.


Rec When a window contains push buttons that affect the entire
 window and the window contains a menu bar, place choices in the
 pull-down menus that provide function equivalent to the push
 button functions in that window.


Rec Use graphics, text, or both, for each choice in a menu bar, as
 appropriate to the product. For example, choices on a menu bar
 for a drawing product could be graphical rather than textual.


Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a name of
 a choice on a menu bar unless the name contains an abbreviation,
 acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.


Fnd Assign a unique mnemonic to each product-specific textual choice
 on a menu bar, unless no meaningful mnemonic can be found.


Fnd Provide the predefined mnemonic assignments for the standard
 menu bar choices.




Essential Related Topics


° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59


° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63


° "Pull-Down Menu" in topic 2.2.85


° "Routing (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.93




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32


° "File Menu (Application-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.36


° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45


° "Options Menu" in topic 2.2.73


° "Push Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.86


° "Selected Menu" in topic 2.2.101


° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117


° "View Menu" in topic 2.2.126


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128


° "Windows Menu" in topic 2.2.134

2.2.61 Message




Information displayed in a window in response to an unexpected
event, a situation in which something undesirable could occur,
or when there is additional status information on a process that
has completed. The three types of messages are information
message, warning message, and action message.


FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a message to report unexpected or undesirable situations to
 the user.


Rec Use a message to indicate that a process has completed
 successfully, but there is additional information about the
 status of the completion that the user must see.




Guidelines


Fnd Display a warning message to indicate that an undesirable
 situation could occur but that the user can allow the process to
 continue.


Fnd Display an action message to indicate that a condition has
 occurred and that the user must correct the situation and retry,
 choose an alternative action, or withdraw the request.


Fnd Display an information message to indicate that a condition has
 occurred that the user can do nothing about or that the user
 must see additional information about the status of normal
 completion.


Fnd If a progress indicator is displayed in a separate window,
 display information about the status of a process in the
 progress-indicator window.


Rec Phrase message text so that a user clearly understands what
 caused the message as well as what action, if any, can be taken
 to correct the situation that caused the message.


Rec Avoid phrasing messages in a way that requires a "Yes" or "No"
 response from the user. For example, do not use the message,
 "Are you sure you don't want to save the file?" Instead, use,
 "File has been modified. Select 'Discard' to throw away changes
 or select 'Save' to save the file and then quit." If Yes and No
push buttons are used, avoid using negatives in the message
text.


Rec Provide access to help information from each message window by
 providing a push button labeled Help.


Rec If an associated window is open, display a message in a
 secondary window that is dependant on the associated window.


Rec If no associated window is open for which a message must be
 displayed, augment that object's icon with a small version of
 the message symbol. For example, if a note could not be
 successfully sent and no associated window is open, augment the
 mail basket icon with an appropriate message symbol, such as an
 "i" or "?."


Rec If no associated window is open for which a message must be
 displayed and the object's icon is not currently visible,
 augment the container that is visible with a small version of
 the message symbol. For example, if an object's icon is
 contained in a folder that is currently visible, augment the
 folder's icon with an appropriate message symbol. If that
 folder's icon were not visible because it was contained in a
 closed work area, augment the work area's icon with an
 appropriate message symbol.


Fnd Use Figure 173 to determine which symbol to use to visually
 identify each type of message.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 173. Message Symbols and Message Types |
|_______________________ ________________________________________________|
| Symbol | Message Type |
 |_______________________|________________________________________________|
 |  | Information Message |
 |_______________________|________________________________________________|
 |  | Warning Message |
 |_______________________|________________________________________________|
 |  | Action Message (When a user's immediate |
 | | attention is not required, such as when the |
 | | situation will not worsen with time.) |
 |_______________________|________________________________________________|
 |  | Action Message (When a user's immediate |
 | | attention is required.) |
 |_______________________|________________________________________________|


Rec Display the message symbol to the left of the message text.


Rec Include in the window title the name of the object and the
 action or situation that caused the message to appear. For
 example, "Drive A: - Format Diskette" might be used for a
 message title for a message displayed during a format operation.


Rec Make messages as modeless as possible. For example, if a
 message is associated with an entry field in a window, make the
 message modeless.


Rec If you provide a message identifier in a message window, place
 it in the bottom right-most corner of the message and display it
 in a smaller font than the rest of the message text.


Rec Use Figure 174 to determine when and how to display messages.

Figure 174. Message and Progress Indicator Flowchart






Essential Related Topics


° "Action Message" in topic 2.2.3


° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50


° "Information Message" in topic 2.2.51


° "Progress Indicator" in topic 2.2.84


° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87


° "Warning Message" in topic 2.2.127




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Audible Feedback" in topic 2.2.6


° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50

2.2.62 Minimize (Choice)




An action choice that removes a window and all of its secondary
windows from the workplace. A minimized-window visual, such as
an application-defined icon, is placed on the workplace to
represent a minimized window.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a Minimize choice for windows that contain views of
 objects.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Minimize choice, place it in the system menu.


Fnd Display the Minimize choice with unavailable-state emphasis when
 the window is currently minimized.


Fnd If you provide the Minimize choice, place a minimize push button
 on the title bar if the window is not currently minimized.


Rec When a user minimizes a window that has not been minimized
 previously, place the minimized-window visual near the bottom of
 the workplace.


Rec When a user minimizes a window that has been minimized
 previously, place the minimized-window visual where it had been
 before being restored previously.


Fnd When a user minimizes a work area, remove from the workplace all
 windows associated with that work area and save the open state
 of each associated window for use when the work area is
 restored.


Rec Before minimizing a window, save its state, including its size
 and position, along with the state of each of its associated
 windows, to be used when the window is restored.


Fnd Assign Alt+F9 as the shortcut key combination for the Minimize
choice.


Fnd Assign "N" as the mnemonic for the Minimize choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Maximize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.58


° "Restore (Choice)" in topic 2.2.92


° "Size (Choice)" in topic 2.2.109

2.2.63 Mnemonic




A single, easy-to-remember alphanumeric character that moves the
cursor to a choice and selects the choice.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide the predefined mnemonic for each predefined choice.


Fnd Provide a unique mnemonic for each product-specific textual
 choice in a menu, unless no meaningful unique mnemonic can be
 found.


Rec Provide a unique mnemonic for each choice in a field of choices,
 except for push buttons that have a specific key assignment.




Guidelines


Rec When a user presses a mnemonic character, move the cursor to the
 choice in that scope that corresponds with that mnemonic and
 selects that choice; otherwise, generate an audible cue to
 indicate that the mnemonic is not valid within that scope.


Fnd Make mnemonics unique:


° Within each pull-down menu, cascaded menu, and pop-up menu.


° For all choices, field prompts, controls that allow typing,
push buttons, and menu bar choices within a window.


Rec In a window with a menu bar, when a user presses Alt+mnemonic
 character, move the cursor to a menu-bar choice that has that
 mnemonic.


Rec In a control that allows typing, when a user presses
 Alt+mnemonic character, move the cursor to a choice that has
 that mnemonic outside the control.


Fnd Identify each mnemonic with an underline.


Fnd If a mnemonic is an alphabetic character, allow a user to press
 either the uppercase or lowercase character.


Rec Provide a mnemonic for the default push button if the default
 push button is not always a push button at the bottom of the
 window.


Rec For push buttons that do not open a new window or close the
 current window, avoid moving the cursor when a user types a
 mnemonic to select a push button.


Fnd If you provide the following choices, assign unique mnemonics to
 them as in 175 through 185 on pages 2.2.63 through 2.2.63.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 175. Mnemonic Assignments for the Title Bar and Menu Bar |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | System menu | Spacebar |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | File menu | F |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Selected menu | S |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Edit menu | E |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | View menu | V |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Options menu | O |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Windows menu | W |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Help menu | H |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 176. Mnemonic Assignments for a Field of Push Buttons |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Push button | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Apply | A |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | OK | O |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Reset | R |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Retry | R |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Stop | S |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Close | C |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Continue | C |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Pause | P |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Resume | R |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Note: |
 | |
 | 1. Reset, Retry, and Resume will not appear within the same field of |
 | push buttons. |
 | |
 | 2. Close and Continue will not appear within the same field of push |
 | buttons. |
 |________________________________________________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 177. Mnemonic Assignments for the System Menu |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| System Menu Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Restore | R |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Move | M |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Size | S |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Minimize | N |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Hide | H |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Maximize | X |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Close | C |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Window list | W |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Split | P |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 178. Mnemonic Assignments for the File Menu |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| File Menu Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | New | N |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Open (Application-oriented) | O |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Open as (Object-oriented) | O |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Save | S |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Save as | A |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Print | P |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Note: Open and Open as will not appear within the same menu |
 |________________________________________________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 179. Mnemonic Assignments for the Selected Menu |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Selected Menu Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Open as | O |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Print | P |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 180. Mnemonic assignments for the Edit Menu |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Edit Menu Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Undo | U |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Redo | R |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Cut | T |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Copy | C |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Create | A |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Paste | P |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Clear | E |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Delete | D |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Find | F |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Select all | S |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Deselect all | L |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 181. Mnemonic Assignments for the View Menu |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| View Menu Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Icon | C |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Details | D |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Settings | T |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Sort | S |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Include | I |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Refresh | R |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Refresh now | N |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 182. Mnemonic Assignments for the Refresh Cascade Choices |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | On | O |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Off | F |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 183. Mnemonic Assignments for the Options Menu |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Options Menu Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Short menus | S |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Full menus | F |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 184. Mnemonic Assignments for the Windows Menu |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Windows Menu Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Window list | W |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 185. Mnemonic Assignments for the Help Menu |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Help Menu Choice | Mnemonic |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Help index | I |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | General help | G |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Using help | U |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Tutorial | T |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Product information | P |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|


Fnd For choices other than those listed in the preceding tables,
 assign mnemonic characters by applying the first applicable
 guideline that follows:


1. Use the first character of the choice name, or the first
character of one of the words in a multiple-word choice,
unless those characters have been assigned as mnemonics for
other choices.


2. If the first character of a choice name has been used as the
mnemonic for another choice, use a consonant in the choice
name.


3. If all consonants in a choice name have been used as
mnemonics for other choices, use any other character in the
choice name.


4. If all characters in a choice name have been used as
mnemonics for other choices, add a unique character to the
choice text and make it the mnemonic. Display the character
in parentheses after the choice.


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Audible Feedback" in topic 2.2.6


° "First-Letter Cursor Navigation" in topic 2.2.39


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Shortcut Key" in topic 2.2.106

2.2.64 Mouse




A commonly used pointing device, containing one or more buttons,
that allows a user to interact with a product or the operating
environment. A mouse button is mapped to one of three
functions: selection, manipulation, and displaying a pop-up
menu.


Guidelines


Rec Assign mouse button one as the mouse selection button as the
 initial default for a two-button mouse.


Rec Assign mouse button two as the mouse manipulation button as the
 initial default for a two-button mouse.


Rec Assign the chording of mouse buttons one and two as the mouse
 menu button as the initial default for a two-button mouse.


Fnd When a user clicks a mouse button, perform the function assigned
 to a click of that button.


Fnd Design your product so that when a user double-clicks a mouse
 button, only the function assigned to a double-click of that
 button is performed. Do not allow the function assigned to a
 single click of that mouse button to be performed. For example,
 if a user double-clicks on an object, the object's selection
 state should remain unaffected, and the object should be opened.


Fnd Do not assign double-click as the only way to select a choice
 and perform an action. Provide a keyboard alternative, such as
 a menu choice or push button.


Rec Do not assign double-click functions to choices on which users
 will typically perform multiple single clicks, such as on scroll
 bar buttons.


Fnd Perform the function assigned to a chord when a user presses
 more than one mouse button in such a way that the buttons are
 down and the mouse moves no more than the distance that the user
 has specified for the operating environment. Do not perform the
 functions assigned to clicking each mouse button individually.


Rec When a user presses the mouse selection button, move the input
 focus to the pointer position or to the closest part of the
 window that can receive the input focus.


Rec Avoid moving input focus to the pointer position when a user
 presses the mouse menu button.


Fnd If pop-up menus are provided, allow a user using a 3-button
 mouse to select a choice from the pop-up menu with either the
 mouse selection button or mouse menu button.


Fnd Provide access to all functions of an object using equivalent,
 though not necessarily identical, mouse and keyboard techniques.


Fnd Assign the mouse-button functions for a one-button, two-button,
 and three-button mouse as in the following tables:


 _________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 186. Mouse Techniques for Selection |
|_________ _______ _______ __________ __________ _________|
| Selectio| Mouse | Key | User | User | Result |
 | techniqu| button| presse| action | action | |
 | | presse| | to begin | to end | |
 | | | | selection| selection| |
 |_________|_______|_______|__________|__________|_________|
 | Point | Select|onNone | Click on | Not | Selected|state
 | selectio| | | any | applicabl| emphasis|
 | | | | object | | is |
 | | | | or | | displaye|
 | | | | choice | | on |
 | | | | that can | | object |
 | | | | be | | or |
 | | | | selected.| | choice. |
 |_________|_______|_______|__________|__________|_________|
 | Begin | Select|onNone | Click in | Not | Anchor |
 | point-to|endpoin| | list of | applicabl| point |
 | range | | | objects | | is set. |
 | (click) | | | or | | |
 | selectio| | | choices | | |
 | | | | that can | | |
 | | | | be | | |
 | | | | selected.| | |
 |_________|_______|_______|__________|__________|_________|
 | End | Select|oShift | Click | Not | All |
 | point-to|endpoin| | elsewhere| applicabl| objects |
 | range | | | in list | | in |
 | (click) | | | of | | range |
 | selectio| | | objects | | are |
 | | | | or | | selected|
 | | | | choices | | |
 | | | | that can | | |
 | | | | be | | |
 | | | | selected.| | |
 |_________|_______|_______|__________|__________|_________|
 | Point-to|eSelect|onNone | Press | Release | All |
 | area | | | and hold | mouse | objects |
 | (marquee| | | mouse | button. | that |
 | selectio| | | button | | are |
 | | | | in blank | | fully |
 | | | | space, | | within |
 | | | | then | | the |
 | | | | drag | | marquee |
 | | | | until | | box are |
 | | | | all | | selected|
 | | | | desired | | |
 | | | | objects | | |
 | | | | are | | |
 | | | | within | | |
 | | | | the | | |
 | | | | marquee | | |
 | | | | box. | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|__________|__________|_________|
 | Random-p|iSelect|onNone | Press | Release | All |
 | selectio| | | mouse | mouse | items |
 | | | | button | button | passed |
 | | | | while | when | over by |
 | | | | pointer | pointer | mouse |
 | | | | is on an | is on | while |
 | | | | object, | last | mouse |
 | | | | then | object | button |
 | | | | move | to be | was |
 | | | | mouse | selected.| down |
 | | | | while | | are |
 | | | | holding | | selected|
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down. | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|__________|__________|_________|
 | Deselect| Select|onNone | Click in | Not | Selectio|
 | all | | | blank | applicabl| emphasis|
 | | | | space. | | is |
 | | | | | | removed |
 | | | | | | from |
 | | | | | | all |
 | | | | | | objects |
 | | | | | | or |
 | | | | | | choices |
 |_________|_______|_______|__________|__________|_________|




 _____________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 187. Mouse Techniques for Direct Manipulation for a |
| One-Button Mouse |
|_________ _______ _______ ____________ ____________ _________|
| Direct | Mouse | Key | User | User | Result |
 | manipula|ibutton| presse| action to | action to | |
 | techniqu| presse| | begin | end direct | |
 | | | | direct | manipulatio| |
 | | | | manipulatio| | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Move | Select|onNone | Press | Release | Object |
 | | | | mouse | mouse | is |
 | | | | button | button | moved |
 | | | | while | when | from |
 | | | | pointer is | pointer is | source |
 | | | | on an | on target | to |
 | | | | object, | object. | target. |
 | | | | then move | | |
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | the button | | |
 | | | | down. | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Cause | Select|oShift | Press | Release | Object |
 | Move | | | mouse | mouse | is |
 | (overrid| | | button | button | moved |
 | default)| | | while | when | from |
 | | | | pointer is | pointer is | source |
 | | | | on an | on target | to |
 | | | | object, | object. | target. |
 | | | | then move | | |
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | the button | | |
 | | | | down. | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Copy | Select|onNone | Press | Release | A copy |
 | | | | mouse | mouse | of the |
 | | | | button | button | source |
 | | | | while | when | object |
 | | | | pointer is | pointer is | is |
 | | | | on an | on target | placed |
 | | | | object, | object. | at the |
 | | | | then move | | target |
 | | | | mouse | | position|
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | the button | | |
 | | | | down. | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Cause | Select|onCtrl | Press | Release | A copy |
 | Copy | | | mouse | mouse | of the |
 | (overrid| | | button | button | source |
 | default)|when | | while | when | object |
 | create-o|-drag | | pointer is | pointer is | is |
 | is set | | | on an | on target | placed |
 | off | | | object, | object | at the |
 | | | | then move | | target |
 | | | | mouse | | position|
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Cause | Select|onCtrl | Press | Release | A new |
 | Create | | | mouse | mouse | object |
 | (overrid| | | button | button | is |
 | default)|when | | while | when | placed |
 | create-o|-drag | | pointer is | pointer is | at the |
 | is set | | | on an | on target | target |
 | on | | | object, | object | position|
 | | | | then move | | |
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Incremen|aSelect|onNone | Click on | Not | Contents|
 | scrollin| | | scroll | applicable | of |
 | | | | button in | | window |
 | | | | scroll | | are |
 | | | | bar. | | scrolled|
 | | | | | | one |
 | | | | | | smallest|
 | | | | | | scrollin|
 | | | | | | incremen|.
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Page | Select|onNone | Click in | Not | Contents|
 | scrollin| | | scroll | applicable | of |
 | | | | shaft | | window |
 | | | | between | | are |
 | | | | scroll | | scrolled|
 | | | | button and | | one |
 | | | | scroll | | page |
 | | | | box. | | incremen|.
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Direct | Select|onNone | Drag | Not | Contents|
 | position|ng | | scroll box | applicable | of |
 | | | | to a | | window |
 | | | | different | | are |
 | | | | position | | scrolled|
 | | | | on scroll | | to |
 | | | | shaft. | | display |
 | | | | | | informat|on
 | | | | | | at |
 | | | | | | relative|
 | | | | | | position|
 | | | | | | indicate|
 | | | | | | by |
 | | | | | | scroll |
 | | | | | | box. |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Split | Select|onNone | Drag split | Not | Window |
 | window | | | bar. | applicable | is |
 | | | | | | divided |
 | | | | | | into |
 | | | | | | multiple|
 | | | | | | panes. |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|




 _____________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 188. Mouse Techniques for Direct Manipulation for a |
| Two-Button or Three-Button Mouse |
|_________ _______ _______ ____________ ____________ _________|
| Direct | Mouse | Key | User | User | Result |
 | manipula|ibutton| presse| action to | action to | |
 | techniqu| presse| | begin | end direct | |
 | | | | direct | manipulatio| |
 | | | | manipulatio| | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Move | Manipu|atNone | Press | Release | Object |
 | | | | mouse | mouse | is |
 | | | | button | button | moved |
 | | | | while | when | from |
 | | | | pointer is | pointer is | source |
 | | | | on an | on target | to |
 | | | | object, | object. | target. |
 | | | | then move | | |
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | the button | | |
 | | | | down. | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Cause | Manipu|aShift | Press | Release | Object |
 | Move | | | mouse | mouse | is |
 | (overrid| | | button | button | moved |
 | default)| | | while | when | from |
 | | | | pointer is | pointer is | source |
 | | | | on an | on target | to |
 | | | | object, | object. | target. |
 | | | | then move | | |
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | the button | | |
 | | | | down. | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Copy | Manipu|atNone | Press | Release | A copy |
 | | | | mouse | mouse | of the |
 | | | | button | button | source |
 | | | | while | when | object |
 | | | | pointer is | pointer is | is |
 | | | | on an | on target | placed |
 | | | | object, | object. | at the |
 | | | | then move | | target |
 | | | | mouse | | position|
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | the button | | |
 | | | | down. | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Cause | Manipu|atCtrl | Press | Release | A copy |
 | Copy | | | mouse | mouse | of the |
 | (overrid| | | button | button | source |
 | default)|when | | while | when | object |
 | create-o|-drag | | pointer is | pointer is | is |
 | is set | | | on an | on target | placed |
 | off | | | object, | object | at the |
 | | | | then move | | target |
 | | | | mouse | | position|
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Cause | Manipu|atCtrl | Press | Release | A new |
 | Create | | | mouse | mouse | object |
 | (overrid| | | button | button | is |
 | default)|when | | while | when | placed |
 | create-o|-drag | | pointer is | pointer is | at the |
 | is set | | | on an | on target | target |
 | on | | | object, | object | position|
 | | | | then move | | |
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Incremen|aSelect|onNone | Click on | Not | Contents|
 | scrollin| | | scroll | applicable | of |
 | | | | button in | | window |
 | | | | scroll | | are |
 | | | | bar. | | scrolled|
 | | | | | | one |
 | | | | | | smallest|
 | | | | | | scrollin|
 | | | | | | incremen|.
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Page | Select|onNone | Click in | Not | Contents|
 | scrollin| | | scroll | applicable | of |
 | | | | shaft | | window |
 | | | | between | | are |
 | | | | scroll | | scrolled|
 | | | | button and | | one |
 | | | | scroll | | page |
 | | | | box. | | incremen|.
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Direct | Select|onNone | Drag | Not | Contents|
 | position|ng | | scroll box | applicable | of |
 | | | | to a | | window |
 | | | | different | | are |
 | | | | position | | scrolled|
 | | | | on scroll | | to |
 | | | | shaft. | | display |
 | | | | | | informat|on
 | | | | | | at |
 | | | | | | relative|
 | | | | | | position|
 | | | | | | indicate|
 | | | | | | by |
 | | | | | | scroll |
 | | | | | | box. |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Split | Manipu|atNone | Drag split | Not | Window |
 | window | | | bar. | applicable | is |
 | | | | | | divided |
 | | | | | | into |
 | | | | | | multiple|
 | | | | | | panes. |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|




 _____________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 189. Mouse Techniques for Miscellaneous Actions for |
| a One-Button Mouse |
|_________ _______ _______ ____________ ____________ _________|
| Action | Mouse | Key | User | User | Result |
 | | button| presse| action to | action to | |
 | | presse| | begin | end action | |
 | | | | action | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Create | Select|oCtrl+S|iPress | Release | Create |
 | Reflecti|n | | mouse | mouse | a |
 | | | | button | button | reflecti|n
 | | | | while | | of the |
 | | | | pointer is | | object. |
 | | | | on an | | |
 | | | | object, | | |
 | | | | then move | | |
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Default | Select|onNone | Double-clic| Not | Default |
 | action | | | on an | applicable | action |
 | | | | object or | | for |
 | | | | choice. | | that |
 | | | | | | object |
 | | | | | | or |
 | | | | | | choice |
 | | | | | | is |
 | | | | | | carried |
 | | | | | | out. |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Pop-up | Select|onAlt | Click or | Not | Pop-up |
 | menu | | | button-down| applicable | menu is |
 | | | | | | displaye|.
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|




 _____________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 190. Mouse Techniques for Miscellaneous Actions for |
| a Two-Button Mouse |
|_________ _______ _______ ____________ ____________ _________|
| Action | Mouse | Key | User | User | Result |
 | | button| presse| action to | action to | |
 | | presse| | begin | end action | |
 | | | | action | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Create | Manipu|aCtrl+S|iPress | Release | Create |
 | Reflecti|n | | mouse | mouse | a |
 | | | | button | button | reflecti|n
 | | | | while | | of the |
 | | | | pointer is | | object. |
 | | | | on an | | |
 | | | | object, | | |
 | | | | then move | | |
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Default | Select|onNone | Double-clic| Not | Default |
 | action | | | on an | applicable | action |
 | | | | object or | | for |
 | | | | choice. | | that |
 | | | | | | object |
 | | | | | | or |
 | | | | | | choice |
 | | | | | | is |
 | | | | | | carried |
 | | | | | | out. |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Pop-up | Select|onNone | Chord | Not | Pop-up |
 | menu | and | | mouse | applicable | menu is |
 | | Manipu|ation | buttons | | displaye|.
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | reserved| Manipu|atAlt | Press | Release | This |
 | | | | mouse | mouse | combinat|on
 | | | | button | button | is |
 | | | | while | | reserved|
 | | | | pointer is | | for |
 | | | | on an | | future |
 | | | | object, | | releases|
 | | | | then move | | of the |
 | | | | mouse | | CUA |
 | | | | while | | interfac|.
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|




 _____________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 191. Mouse Techniques for Miscellaneous Actions for |
| a Three-Button Mouse |
|_________ _______ _______ ____________ ____________ _________|
| Action | Mouse | Key | User | User | Result |
 | | button| presse| action to | action to | |
 | | presse| | begin | end action | |
 | | | | action | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Create | Manipu|aCtrl+S|iPress | Release | Create |
 | Reflecti|n | | mouse | mouse | a |
 | | | | button | button | reflecti|n
 | | | | while | | of the |
 | | | | pointer is | | object. |
 | | | | on an | | |
 | | | | object, | | |
 | | | | then move | | |
 | | | | mouse | | |
 | | | | while | | |
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Default | Select|onNone | Double-clic| Not | Default |
 | action | | | on an | applicable | action |
 | | | | object or | | for |
 | | | | choice. | | that |
 | | | | | | object |
 | | | | | | or |
 | | | | | | choice |
 | | | | | | is |
 | | | | | | carried |
 | | | | | | out. |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | Pop-up | Menu | None | Click or | Not | Pop-up |
 | menu | | | button | applicable | menu is |
 | | | | down | | displaye|.
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|
 | reserved| Manipu|atAlt | Press | Release | This |
 | | | | mouse | mouse | combinat|on
 | | | | button | button | is |
 | | | | while | | reserved|
 | | | | pointer is | | for |
 | | | | on an | | future |
 | | | | object, | | versions|
 | | | | then move | | of the |
 | | | | mouse | | CUA |
 | | | | while | | interfac|.
 | | | | holding | | |
 | | | | button | | |
 | | | | down | | |
 |_________|_______|_______|____________|____________|_________|


Essential Related Topics


° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23


° "Pointing Device" in topic 2.2.77


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Default Action" in topic 2.2.24


° "Pointer" in topic 2.2.75

2.2.65 Move (Choice)




An action choice that allows a user to move a window to a
different location.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a Move choice for each window.




Guidelines


Fnd Place the Move choice in the system menu.


Fnd When a user selects the Move choice, use the operating
 environment's mechanism that allows a user to change the
 position of a window.


Fnd Assign Alt+F7 as the shortcut key combination for the Move
choice.


Fnd Assign "M" as the mnemonic for the Move choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29

2.2.66 Multiple Selection




A type of selection in which a user can select any number of
objects or settings choices, or not select any.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide multiple selection when more than one object can be
 operated on at a time and a user will typically select more than
 one object.


Rec Provide multiple selection when more than one settings choice
 can be applied to an object or group of objects at a time and a
 user will typically select more than one settings choice.




Guidelines


Fnd For the following selection techniques, provide the mouse and
 keyboard access mechanisms as listed in Figure 192.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 192. Multiple Selection Techniques |
|____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
| Technique | Mouse | Keyboard | Result |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Point | Click mouse | With cursor on | Toggles the |
 | selection | selection button | object to be | selection state |
 | | with pointer on | selected or | of the single |
 | | object to be | deselected, press | identified |
 | | selected or | Ctrl+Spacebar; | object; does not |
 | | deselected. | also spacebar if | affect the state |
 | | | spacebar is not | of other objects. |
 | | | used to type a | |
 | | | space. | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Point-to-en|point | | |
 | selection | | | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Area | Press mouse | Not applicable. | Toggle the |
 | (Marquee) | selection button | | selection state |
 | | at the start | | of the first |
 | | point and move | | object and make |
 | | the pointer to | | the selection |
 | | the end point; | | state of all |
 | | release the mouse | | objects within |
 | | selection button | | the identified |
 | | at the end point. | | area the same as |
 | | | | the new selection |
 | | | | state of the |
 | | | | first object. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Range | Press mouse | Press Shift at | Toggle the |
 | (Swipe) | selection button | the start point | selection state |
 | | at the start | and hold while | of the first |
 | | point and move | using | object and make |
 | | the pointer to | cursor-movement | the selection |
 | | the end point; | keys to move the | state of all |
 | | release the mouse | cursor to the end | other objects in |
 | | selection button | point; release | order from the |
 | | at the end point. | Shift at end | identified start |
 | | | point. | point to the |
 | | | | identified end |
 | | | | point the same as |
 | | | | the new selection |
 | | | | state of the |
 | | | | first object. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Range | Click mouse | Not applicable. | Toggle the |
 | (Click) | selection button | | selection state |
 | | at the start | | of the first |
 | | point; press | | object and make |
 | | Shift and click | | the selection |
 | | the mouse | | state of all |
 | | selection button | | other objects in |
 | | at the end point, | | order from the |
 | | then release | | identified start |
 | | Shift key. | | point to the |
 | | | | identified |
 | | | | endpoint the same |
 | | | | as the new |
 | | | | selection state |
 | | | | of the first |
 | | | | object. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Random-poin| | | |
 | selection | | | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Random | Press mouse | Not applicable. | Toggle the |
 | (Swipe) | selection button | | selection state |
 | | with pointer on | | of the first |
 | | first object to | | object and make |
 | | be selected; | | the selection |
 | | move the pointer | | state of all |
 | | over other | | identified |
 | | objects to be | | objects in the |
 | | selected; release | | order the user |
 | | mouse selection | | identified the |
 | | button. | | objects the same |
 | | | | as the new |
 | | | | selection state |
 | | | | of the first |
 | | | | object. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|






Essential Related Topics


° "Extended Selection" in topic 2.2.34


° "Marquee Selection" in topic 2.2.57


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103


° "Single Selection" in topic 2.2.108


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Descriptive Text" in topic 2.2.27


° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64


° "Status Area (Cue)" in topic 2.2.116

2.2.67 New (Choice)




An action choice that allows a user to create a new object.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a New choice for any application for which a user can
 create a new object from and replace the current window's
 contents with that new object.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide a New choice, and you provide an
 application-oriented File menu, place the New choice in the
 application-oriented File menu.


Fnd When a user selects the New choice, do the following:


° Prompt the user with a message to save any unsaved data in
the object displayed in the window.


° Remove the existing information from the current window and
replace it with the new object.




Rec Generate a name for each newly created object. Make the name
 unique if the operating environment requires a unique name, for
 example, create a unique name by appending a number to the name
 of the object it was created from.


Fnd Assign "N" as the mnemonic for the New menu choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "File Menu (Application-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.36


° "Window Title" in topic 2.2.135

2.2.68 Notebook (Control)




A control that resembles a bound notebook that contains pages
separated into sections by tabbed divider-pages. It allows a
user to turn the pages of the notebook and to move from one
section to another.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a notebook to present settings choices to be applied to an
 object.


Rec Use a notebook to present data that can be logically organized
 into groups. For example, use a notebook to present a clip-art
 library that is organized alphabetically or by subject.




Guidelines


Rec Place within a single tabbed section information that is
 related.


Fnd If a section has more than one page, indicate the page number
 within that section.


Fnd Label tabbed-divider pages with either text or graphics, or a
 combination of both.


Rec Order tabs so that they initially appear to go deeper from left
 to right, and top to bottom.


Rec Assign a mnemonic to a tabbed-divider page that is labeled with
 text.


Rec Design each tabbed-divider page to have approximately the same
 proportions, to present a balanced appearance.


Rec Do not place a notebook within a notebook.


Rec Place at the bottom of the window, outside of the notebook, push
 buttons that affect the entire notebook. For example, provide a
 Reset push button to allow a user to return all settings choices
 on every page of a notebook to their last applied state.


Rec Place on the page of a notebook push buttons that affect only
 that page. For example, provide a Reset push button to allow a
 user to return all settings choices on the currently displayed
 page to their last applied state.







Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10


° "Settings (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.105


° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.69 Object




An item that can be manipulated as a unit and that a user works
with to perform a task. An object can be represented as text,
image, graphic, video, or audio.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide an object to allow a user to manipulate a group of
 information as a unit to perform a task.




Guidelines


Fnd When a user places an object on the workplace, use an icon to
 represent that object.


Rec Allow each object to support interaction with the standard
 objects provided by the operating environment. For example,
 allow each object to interact with a printer.


Rec Allow each object to support standard data-transfer operations,
 such as Cut, Copy, and Paste, with objects provided by other
 products.


Rec Allow a user to display a view of an object in a window.


Rec Allow a user to display more than one view of an object at the
 same time. For example, allow a user to see an icons view of a
 container in one window and a settings view of the same
 container in another window.


Rec Design each object to support direct manipulation.


Rec Provide a pop-up menu for each object.


Rec If an object can be placed on the workplace, do not prevent that
 object from being placed in other containers that can contain
 any type of object. For example, if an object can be placed on
 the workplace, allow a user to place that object in a
 system-provided folder that can contain any type of object.


Fnd If you want a view of an object to be displayed in a window that
 is opened, closed, minimized, maximized, restored, or moved
 independently of all other windows on the workplace, use a
 primary window to display a view of the object.


Fnd If you want a view of an object to be displayed in a window that
 is opened, closed, minimized, maximized, restored, or moved when
 another window (other than a work area window) is opened,
 closed, minimized, maximized, restored, or moved, use a
 secondary window to display a view of the object and make the
 secondary window dependent on a primary window.


Rec When a user closes a window that contains a view of an object,
 save the state of the object and the state of the view. For
 example, save the size and position of the window as well as the
 scrolling location, cursor position, and selection state of the
 contents.


Rec When a user opens a window to a particular view of an object or
 restores a minimized window, restore the window to its previous
 state, if state information is available, regardless of the
 amount of time that has elapsed since the user last opened or
 restored the window, and regardless of whether the user's system
 has been turned off and on again.


Rec Provide product information about each object.


Rec Provide access from both the keyboard and the pointing device to
 product-specific functions that can be performed on an object.


Rec If you provide a name for an object, allow a user to change that
 name.


Rec Allow all objects that can appear on the workplace to have
 reflections.


Rec Generate a name for each newly created object. Make the name
 unique if the operating environment requires a unique name, for
 example, create a unique name by appending a number to the name
 of the object it was created from.


Rec Provide a folder containing sample objects from which users can
 create new objects. Make the create-on-drag setting the initial
 setting for the objects in the folder. For example, provide a
 folder named "New Forms" containing initialized versions of
 frequently-used forms.




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Container (Control)" in topic 2.2.16


° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23


° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29


° "Icon" in topic 2.2.47


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64


° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80


° "Product Information (Choice)" in topic 2.2.83


° "Work Area (Object)" in topic 2.2.136

2.2.70 Open (Choice)




A routing choice that displays a window that allows a user to
specify an object to be opened in the window from which the
Open... choice was selected.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide an Open choice for objects designed for application-
 oriented environments to allow a user to display another object
 of the same type in the window from which the Open choice was
 selected.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide an Open choice, and you provide an
 application-oriented File menu, place the Open choice in the
 application-oriented File menu.


Fnd When a user selects the Open choice, display the Open action
 window.


Fnd Assign "O" as the mnemonic for the Open menu choice.


Essential Related Topics


° "File Menu (Application-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.36


° "Open (Action Window)" in topic 2.2.72




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.71 Open As (Choice)




An action choice that displays a window containing the named
view, for example, Open as (view). Or, when several views are
 available, it is a routing choice that leads to a cascaded menu
 containing the names of the view choices.
















FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide an Open as choice to allow a user to open a selected
 object or group of selected objects in a new window to a
 specific view.


Rec Provide an Open as choice to allow a user to open the underlying
 object in a window to another view in a new window.


Rec If a settings view is displayed with a notebook, provide a
 cascaded menu from the Open as settings choice that provides
 direct access to each tabbed-divider page in the notebook.


Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Open as choice, place it in the Selected menu
 if the Selected menu is provided to allow a user to open a
 selected object or group of objects to a specified view.


Fnd If at least one view for an object is available and if a pop-up
 menu is provided, place the Open as choice in the pop-up menu
 for that object.


Rec Place the Open as choice in the object-oriented File menu if the
 object-oriented File menu is provided and your users must
 frequently open new windows on the underlying object and require
 the flexibility to open a user-specified view.


Rec If an object has more than three views, make the Open as choice
 a cascading choice and place the view names in the cascaded
 menu.


Rec If a cascaded menu is not used to list the names of the
 available views, then for each view, label a choice in the menu
 with the name of the view appended to the Open as choice. For
 example, show a choice labeled Open as settings.


Fnd Assign "O" as the mnemonic for the Open as cascaded menu choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "File Menu (Object-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.37


° "Selected Menu" in topic 2.2.101




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Cascaded Menu" in topic 2.2.8


° "Notebook (Control)" in topic 2.2.68


° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80


° "Primary Window" in topic 2.2.81


° "Secondary Window" in topic 2.2.99


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.72 Open (Action Window)




A window that appears from the routing choice Open that allows a
 user to select an object to open.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Display the Open window when a user selects the Open choice in
 the application-oriented File menu.




Guidelines


Rec Display the Open window in a secondary window that is dependent
 upon the window from which the Open choice was selected.


Rec Provide an entry field to allow a user to type the name of an
 object to be opened.


Rec Provide a drop-down list that allows a user to display a list of
 file types that can be opened.


Rec Provide a drop-down list that allows a user to specify the
 storage device, such as the A:, B:, or C: drive.


Rec Provide a list box of appropriate containers, such as
 directories. Use a filled in greater-than symbol (ÿ) to the
 left of the current container, and show the containment
 hierarchy by indenting containers that are within another
 container.


Rec Provide in a list box the names of all objects that are in the
 specified container, and on the specified storage device, that
 match the specified type.


Rec Assign the default action, such as double-click, for an object
 in the list of objects to open the selected object into the same
 window from which the Open choice was selected.


Fnd Assign the default action, such as double-click, for a container
 in the list of containers to display or refresh the list of
 objects.


Rec When a user selects an object from the list of objects, insert
 the name of the selected object into the entry field that
 displays the object name.


Fnd Provide a Cancel push button to allow a user to close the Open
window without opening a new object.


Fnd Provide an Open push button to allow a user to open the
 specified object.


Fnd Provide a push button labeled Help.




Essential Related Topics


° "Open (Choice)" in topic 2.2.70




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Default Action" in topic 2.2.24


° "Drop-Down List (Control)" in topic 2.2.31


° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33


° "File Menu (Application-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.36


° "List Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.56


° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87

2.2.73 Options Menu




A pull-down menu from the Options choice on a menu bar that
 contains choices that allow a user to customize the functions of
 an application.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide an Options choice on the menu bar in each window that
 provides a menu bar and a user can tailor the appearance or
 behavior of the product.




Guidelines


Rec Provide choices that are specific to a product, not specific to
 a particular view or object. For view-specific options, use the
 View pull-down. For object-specific options, provide an object
 setting.


Fnd Assign "O" as the mnemonic for the Options choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "View Menu" in topic 2.2.126




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Short Menus and Full Menus (Choice)" in topic 2.2.107


° "Tool Palette" in topic 2.2.120

2.2.74 Paste (Choice)




An action choice that places a copy of the contents of the
clipboard into an indicated object.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a Paste choice for all objects that can be modified by a
 user.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide a Paste choice, and you provide an Edit menu,
 place the Paste choice in the Edit menu.


Rec If you provide the Paste choice for an object, place the Paste
choice in the pop-up menu for the object when the object on the
clipboard can currently be copied into the object with the Paste
choice.


Rec When a user selects the Paste choice from a pop-up menu, then
 add, insert, or combine the source object into the target object
 as appropriate.


Rec When a user selects the Paste choice in a window, place the
 source object at the current location of the cursor in the
 target object.


Rec When a user selects the Paste choice in a window, and no cursor
 is provided, place the source object at the current position of
 the pointer in the target object.


Rec When a user selects the Paste choice in a window and the cursor
 is positioned on or adjacent to selected text, replace the
 selected text with the source object; otherwise, insert the
 source object at the current position of the cursor.


Fnd Display the Paste choice with unavailable-state emphasis when
 the clipboard is empty or when the contents cannot be pasted at
 the indicated position.


Rec Generate a name for each newly created object. Make the name
 unique if the operating environment requires a unique name, for
 example, create a unique name by appending a number to the name
 of the object it was created from.


Fnd Assign "P" as the mnemonic for the Paste choice.


Fnd Assign Shift+Insert as the shortcut key combination for the
 Paste choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19


° "Create (Choice)" in topic 2.2.20


° "Cut (Choice)" in topic 2.2.22


° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23


° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21


° "Pointer" in topic 2.2.75


° "Pop-Up Menu" in topic 2.2.80

2.2.75 Pointer




The symbol, usually in the shape of an arrow, that is displayed
on the screen and is moved by a pointing device, such as a
mouse. It is used to point to choices and objects that a user
wants to select or otherwise interact with. A position on the
pointer called the hot spot indicates where interaction will
occur.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Display a pointer whenever pointing device support is enabled by
 the operating environment.




Guidelines


Fnd When no other object-specific or task-specific pointer is
 displayed, display the arrow pointer.


Fnd Move the pointer only when a user moves the pointing device.


Rec Display a pointer that a user can associate with an action or
 set of actions that can be performed within the current context.
 For example, augment the pointer with a rectangle when a user
 selects a rectangle-drawing tool from a tool palette.


Rec Place the pointer hot spot as follows:


° Place the pointer hot spot in the upper left-hand corner of
the pointer image.


° If a user would typically expect the pointer hot spot in a
position other than the upper-lefthand corner of the pointer
image, place the pointer hot spot where the user would
typically expect it. For example, if you provide a
crosshair pointer, place the hot spot at the intersection of
the two lines, rather than in the upper-lefthand corner of
the pointer image.


Fnd Use the predefined pointer when a user performs a predefined
 operation.




Essential Related Topics


° "Pointer (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.76


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64


° "Pointing Device" in topic 2.2.77

2.2.76 Pointer (Predefined)




Pointers used for predefined operations.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Display the move pointer to indicate that the result of the
 direct-manipulation operation will be a move.


Fnd Display the copy pointer to indicate that the result of the
 direct-manipulation operation will be a copy.


Fnd Display the do-not pointer to indicate that the target object is
 not a valid target for the direct-manipulation operation.


Rec Display the I-beam pointer to indicate that the pointer is over
 an area where text can be typed or selected.


Fnd Display a wait pointer to indicate that the user cannot
 currently interact with the component the pointer is over.




Guidelines


Fnd Make the move pointer the default pointer.


Rec If a user cannot interact with a component because a process is
 affecting that component, display the wait pointer while the
 pointer is over that component. Do not prevent a user from
 interacting with components that are not affected by the process
 that is running.


Rec When the user uses a pointing device for selection in text that
 can be edited, place the text cursor at the pointer position
 when the user clicks the selection button.




Essential Related Topics


° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21


° "Pointer" in topic 2.2.75


° "Progress Indicator" in topic 2.2.84




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33


° "Text Entry" in topic 2.2.119

2.2.77 Pointing Device




A device, such as a mouse, trackball, or joystick, used to move
a pointer on the screen.


FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide support for a pointing device.


Rec Support one-button, two-button, and three-button mouse pointing
 devices.




Guidelines


Fnd Provide access to all functions of an object using equivalent,
 though not necessarily identical, pointing device and keyboard
 techniques.




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64


° "Pointer" in topic 2.2.75

2.2.78 Point Selection




A selection technique that allows a user to select a single
object.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide point selection for single, multiple, and extended
 selection.




Guidelines


Fnd In single selection mode:


° Using the mouse, when the user presses the mouse selection
button, deselect the currently-selected object and select
the object the pointer is on.


° Using the keyboard, when the user presses Spacebar, deselect
the currently-selected object and select the object the
cursor is on.


Fnd In multiple selection mode:


° Using the mouse, when the user presses the mouse selection
button, toggle the selection state of the object or group of
objects the pointer is on. The selection state of all other
objects are not affected.


° Using the keyboard, when the user presses Spacebar, toggle
the selection state of the object or group of objects the
cursor is on. The selection state of all other objects are
not affected.


Fnd In extended selection mode:


° Using the mouse, when the user presses the mouse selection
button, deselect the currently-selected object or group of
objects and select the object the pointer is on.


° Using the mouse while holding the Ctrl key, when the user
presses the mouse selection button, toggle the selection
state of the object or group of objects the pointer is on.
The selection state of all other objects are not affected.


° Using the keyboard, when the user presses Spacebar, deselect
the currently-selected object or group of objects and select
the object the cursor is on.


° Using the keyboard after pressing Shift+F8, when the user
presses spacebar, toggle the selection state of the object
or group of objects the cursor is on. The selection state
of all other objects are not affected.


Essential Related Topics


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Point-to-Endpoint Selection" in topic 2.2.79


° "Random-Point Selection" in topic 2.2.89

2.2.79 Point-to-Endpoint Selection




Selection techniques in which a user selects objects by
specifying a beginning point and an end point. The three
implementations of point-to-endpoint selection are range
(click), range (swipe), and area (marquee).
















FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide one or more point-to-endpoint-selection techniques in
 extended selection and multiple selection.


Guidelines


Fnd Allow a keyboard user to press Shift+F8 to establish a mode in
 which the new selected objects are added or removed from the
 current group of selected objects.


Fnd In extended selection mode:


° Using the mouse for an area, the user presses the mouse
selection button to deselect all other objects in the
selection scope and to select all objects contained within
the identified area.


° Using the mouse for a range while holding the Ctrl key, the
user presses the mouse selection button to deselect all
other objects in the selection scope and select all objects
in order from the start point to the identified end point.


° Using the keyboard for a range, the user presses Shift at
the start point and moves the cursor to the end point to
deselect all other objects in the selection scope and to
select all objects in order from the start point to the
identified end point.


° Using the mouse and keyboard for a range, the user presses
the mouse selection button at the start point and presses
Shift and the mouse selection button at the end point to
deselect all other objects in the selection scope and to
select all objects in order from the identified start point
to the identified end point.


° Using the keyboard after pressing Shift+F8, the user presses
Spacebar to toggle the selection state of the object the
cursor is on.


Fnd Display the marquee box only during selection.


Fnd Display selected-state emphasis on each object as soon as it is
 completely contained within the marquee box.


Fnd Display selected-state emphasis on each icon as soon as the
 icon's graphic is completely contained within the marquee box.


Fnd Display selected-state emphasis on each object as soon as the
 pointer passes over it when performing range (swipe) selection.


Essential Related Topics


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Marquee Selection" in topic 2.2.57


° "Point Selection" in topic 2.2.78


° "Random-Point Selection" in topic 2.2.89

2.2.80 Pop-Up Menu




A menu that is displayed next to, and contains choices
appropriate for, a given object or set of objects in their
current context, such as the container it is contained in, what
other objects are selected, and what it contains.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a pop-up menu for each object.




Guidelines


Fnd Do not change the state of a window or an object when a pop-up
 menu is displayed. For example, do not change the selection
 state of any object.


Fnd If pop-up menus are provided, allow a user to display the pop-up
 menu:


° Using the keyboard by pressing Shift+F10 when the cursor is
on the object.


° Using a one-button mouse by pressing Alt+mouse selection
button when the pointer is over the object.


° Using a two-button mouse by chording the mouse selection and
manipulation buttons when the pointer is over the object.


° Using a three-button mouse by pressing the mouse menu button
when the pointer is over the object.


Rec When a user requests a pop-up menu using the keyboard, place the
 pop-up menu centered and to the right of the object from which
 it was requested, if possible; otherwise, place it near the
 object as space allows, but not covering the object.


Rec When a user requests a pop-up menu using a pointing device,
 place the pop-up menu centered and to the right of the pointer,
 if possible; otherwise, place it near the pointer as space
 allows, but not covering the object.


Rec Place the cursor on a choice near the middle of a pop-up menu
 when the menu is first displayed.


Fnd Continue to display a pop-up menu until a user selects a choice
 (other than a cascading choice) from the pop-up menu, presses
 the cancel key, or until a user initiates an action outside the
 scope of the pop-up menu, such as displaying a pop-up menu for
 another object or clicking a button on the pointing device while
 the pointer is not over the pop-up menu.


Fnd When a user requests a pop-up menu from one of a group of
 selected objects, display in the pop-up menu only those choices
 that are applicable to all of the selected objects in the group.
 When a user selects a choice in the pop-up menu, apply the
 selected choice to each of the selected objects.


Rec If pop-up menus are provided for an object, allow a user to
 display the pop-up menu on an object whether or not the object
 is selected.


Rec If a choice in a pop-up menu is not currently available, do not
 include it in the menu.


Fnd Place choices in a pop-up menu in the following order:


° Choices that open a window on an object, such as Open as or
 Help.


° --Separator--


° Choices that provide access to the clipboard, such as Cut,
Copy, Create, and Paste.


° --Separator--


° Choices provided as a convenience to users, such as Print
and Delete.


Rec When possible, use the order of choices in pull-down menus to
 determine the order of related choices in pop-up menus. For
 example, if you provide the Save and Print choices in a pop-up
 menu, place them in the same relative order as they appear in
 the File menu.


Fnd When a user cancels a pop-up menu by pressing the Cancel key,
 remove the menu and return input focus to where it was prior to
 displaying the menu.


Rec Allow a user to customize a pop-up menu by adding or removing
 choices.




Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Cascaded Menu" in topic 2.2.8


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64

2.2.81 Primary Window




A window in which the main interaction between a user and an
object takes place. A primary window is used to present
information that is used independently from information in all
other windows.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Use a primary window to display a view of an object that is
 independent of all other windows (except work areas) with
 respect to the closing, opening, minimizing, and restoring
 actions.


Fnd Use a primary window to display all views of objects opened from
 the workplace.




Guidelines


Fnd When a primary window is opened or restored, restore its
 associated secondary windows.


Fnd When a primary window is closed or minimized, remove its
 secondary windows.


Rec Allow a view of an object to be displayed in multiple primary
 windows.




Essential Related Topics


° "Secondary Window" in topic 2.2.99


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.82 Print (Choice)




An action or routing choice that causes an object to be printed.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a Print choice for all printable objects.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide a Print choice and you provide a File menu, place
 the Print choice in the File menu if the underlying object can
 be printed.


Fnd If you provide a Print choice and you provide a Selected menu,
 place the Print choice in the Selected menu if the selected
 object can be printed.


Rec If more than one printer is connected to a user's system, allow
 the user to designate the printer to be used. For example,
 provide a list of printers in a cascaded menu or in an action
 window.


Rec If additional information is required before an object can be
 printed, allow a user to specify that information.


Rec Provide access from any object to any printer object through
 direct manipulation.


Rec When a user selects the Print choice in the:


° File menu, print the view in the window.
 ° Selected menu, print the default print view.
 ° Pop-up menu, print the default print view.


Rec When a user drags an icon (other than the small icon in the
 title bar) to a printer object, print the default print view for
 the object.


Rec When a user drags the small icon in the title bar to a printer
 object, print the view in the window.


Rec Allow a user to specify which view is the default print view for
 an object.


Fnd Assign "P" as the mnemonic for the Print choice.


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23


° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29


° "File Menu (Application-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.36


° "Selected Menu" in topic 2.2.101

2.2.83 Product Information (Choice)




An action choice that displays a window containing product
information, such as a copyright notice, a logo, or both.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a Product information choice in each Help menu.




Guidelines


Fnd If the Product information choice is provided, place it in the
 Help menu.


Rec Use a secondary window to display product information.


Fnd Provide a centered OK push button that removes the window.


Fnd Assign "P" as the mnemonic for the Product information choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45

2.2.84 Progress Indicator




One or more controls that inform the user about the status of a
process. If a progress indicator appears in a dedicated window,
information normally presented in an information message can be
displayed in that window.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec When a wait pointer has been displayed for more than five
 seconds, display a progress indicator in addition to the wait
 pointer.




Guidelines


Rec Place a progress indicator in the same window as the process is
 requested from to reduce the number of windows the user must
 interact with.


Fnd Close a progress-indicator window when a request made by a user
 completes normally.


Fnd If information that would have been displayed in an information
 message is displayed in the progress-indicator window, do not
 close the window until the user explicitly requests to close it,
 such as by selecting the Close push button.


Fnd When a progress indicator is displayed, continually update the
 progress indicator to accurately represent the known progress of
 a request made by a user.


Rec Provide a push button that allows a user to end the process and
 close the window. For example, provide a push button labeled
 Stop to allow a user to end the process and close the window.


Fnd Provide a push button that allows a user to close the
 progress-indicator window without affecting the process. For
 example, provide a push button labeled Close to allow a user to
 close the progress indicator window without affecting the
 process. Do not use a Close push button to end a process.


Rec Provide a push button that allows a user to suspend a process
 and provide a push button that allows a user to resume the
 process that has been suspended. For example, provide one push
 button labeled Pause and another labeled Resume. Display
 unavailable-state emphasis on one or the other depending on
 whether the process is running or has been suspended.


Rec Provide access to help information from each progress-indicator
 window. For example, provide a push button labeled Help.


Rec Include the name of the object followed by a hyphen, the name of
 the process, and the word "Progress" in the title bar when a
 separate window is used to display the progress indicator.




Essential Related Topics


° "Action Message" in topic 2.2.3


° "Information Message" in topic 2.2.51


° "Message" in topic 2.2.61


° "Pointer (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.76


° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87


° "Slider (Control)" in topic 2.2.110


° "Warning Message" in topic 2.2.127

2.2.85 Pull-Down Menu




A menu of related choices that extends from a selected choice on
a menu bar or from the system-menu symbol.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a pull-down menu for each choice on a menu bar and for
 the system menu.




Guidelines


Rec If you provide choices that do not logically fit within any of
 the predefined menus, such as the Edit menu or the View menu,
 provide product-specific menu bar choices that lead to menus
 that logically group your product-specific choices.


Fnd Provide the predefined mnemonic for each predefined textual
 choice in a pull-down menu.


Fnd Provide a unique mnemonic for each product-specific textual
 choice in a menu, unless no meaningful unique mnemonic can be
 found.


Fnd Provide the predefined shortcut key assignment for each
 predefined choice in a pull-down menu.


Rec Provide a unique shortcut key assignment for each
 frequently-used product-specific choice in a pull-down menu.


Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59


° "Shortcut Key" in topic 2.2.106


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Action Choice (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.2


° "Cascaded Menu" in topic 2.2.8


° "Routing (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.93


° "Settings (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.105

2.2.86 Push Button (Control)




A control containing text or graphics, or both, representing an
action choice or routing choice that will be activated when a
user selects it.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a push button in a window with a menu bar to provide
 convenient access to a frequently-used action choice or routing
 choice.


Fnd If a menu bar is not provided in a window displaying a view of
 an object, place all action and routing choices on push buttons
 in that window, except for those choices that appear on the
 system menu.


Guidelines


Rec Avoid placing settings choices on push buttons.


Rec If one push button in a field is typically used most frequently
 by users, make that push button the default push button for the
 field.


Rec If the cursor is on a push button, make that push button the
 default push button.


Rec Assign the default push button according to the position of the
 cursor. For example, when a user moves the cursor to a control
 with associated push buttons, assign one of the associated push
 buttons as the default push button.


Fnd Assign a unique mnemonic to each textual push button choice that
 does not have a specific keyboard access mechanism, such as Esc
 for the Cancel push button or F1 for the Help push button,
 unless no meaningful unique mnemonic can be found.


Rec When a user types a mnemonic assigned to a push button, perform
 the action assigned to that push button.


Rec For push buttons that do not open a new window or close the
 current window, avoid moving the cursor when a user types a
 mnemonic to select a push button.


Fnd If two push button choices are mutually exclusive, for example,
 Undo and Redo, use two push buttons and display
 unavailable-state emphasis on whichever one is unavailable given
 the current state of the object. Do not change the label or the
 function of a push button.


Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a choice
 appearing on a push button unless the choice contains an
 abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be
 capitalized.


Fnd When you provide a push button with the function of one of the
 predefined push buttons, use the predefined push-button label
 for that push button.


Rec Label a product-defined action push button to indicate the
 action that will be applied to an object.


Rec Label a product-specific routing push button to indicate the
 window or menu that the user will be routed to.


Fnd When a push button is used for a routing choice, use an ellipsis
 following the choice text.


Fnd Place push buttons that affect the entire window horizontally at
 the bottom of the window and justified from the left edge.


Rec If a window that can be scrolled contains push buttons that
 affect the entire window, scroll the area above the push
 buttons, keeping the push buttons visible.


Rec If the action indicated by the label on a push button adjusts or
 is associated with a component within the same window as the
 push button, place the push button near that component. For
 example, if the function of a push button is to restore the
 initial value in an entry field, place that push button beside
 the entry field that it affects.


Rec If a window contains a push button that affects a component in
 the window, scroll the push button along with the component when
 a user scrolls the window.


Rec If a push button adjusts (or is associated with) a component
 within a window (rather than the entire window), do not close
 the window when a user selects the push button.


Rec Avoid using a push button to change the size of a window;
 instead, allow a user to change the size of the window using the
 size borders and the maximize push button. For example, do not
 provide a push button labeled More>> to allow a user to enlarge
 a window.


Rec When a window contains push buttons and a menu bar, place, in
 the pull-down menus, choices that provide function that is
 equivalent to the push button functions that affect the entire
 window so that the push buttons provide convenient access to
 frequently-used choices in the pull-down menus.


Rec Combine existing menu choices to create new push-button choices
 for frequently-used combinations of choices. For example, the
 Save and New choices could be combined into a new push-button
 choice called Save and new that would perform the Save action
 followed by the New action.


Rec If push buttons contain choices that are also available through
 another mechanism, such as the menu bar or scroll bar, allow a
 user to hide or remove the push buttons.


Rec Clip the push buttons at the bottom of the window when a user
 decreases the width of the window rather than reflowing the push
 buttons into multiple lines.


Rec Avoid using a group box around a field consisting only of push
 buttons.


Rec For push buttons that provide choices that can be used
 repeatedly, repeat the action as long as the user presses and
 holds the mouse selection button. Stop repeating the action
 when the user moves the pointer away from the push button and
 resume repeating the action if the user moves the pointer back
 over the push button without having released the mouse selection
 button.


Essential Related Topics


° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Default Action" in topic 2.2.24


° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63


° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87

2.2.87 Push Button (Predefined)




Push buttons that provide predefined functions. The predefined
push buttons are OK, Close, Stop, Continue, Retry, Apply, Reset,
Cancel, Pause, Resume and Help.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Use a push button with the predefined label when you provide the
 function defined in Figure 193.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 193. Predefined Push Buttons |
|_________ ______________________________________________________________|
| Label | Function |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | OK | Accepts any changes that have been made in the window and |
 | | removes the window. Also used to indicate that the user |
 | | should acknowledge information in the window before removing |
 | | the window. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Close | Removes the window without affecting a process. Close does |
 | | not change the information in the window. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Stop | Ends a process and removes the window. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Continue| Resumes a process that has been interrupted by the operating |
 | | environment when the user may proceed as originally |
 | | requested. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Retry | Tries a process again that has been interrupted by the |
 | | operating environment because of a situation that the user |
 | | can attempt to correct. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Apply | Applies changes made to settings choices without removing |
 | | the window in which the changes were made. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Reset | Returns the values of changed settings choices to their last |
 | | saved state. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Cancel | Removes the window without applying any changes that were |
 | | not previously applied in that window. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Pause | Temporarily suspends a process without ending the process. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Resume | Continues a process that was paused. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|
 | Help | Displays a window containing contextual help information. |
 |_________|______________________________________________________________|




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Cancel and Help push buttons, place them to
 the right of all other push buttons.


Fnd Provide a Reset push button whenever an Apply push button is
 provided.


Rec If Reset is selected, return the values of settings that were
 changed only in the window where Reset was selected.


Fnd If Reset is selected, return the object to the state it was in
 prior to any uncommitted changes. Changes that have been
 previously committed, for example using Apply or OK are not
 reset.


Fnd Do not use both a Close push button and a Cancel push button in
 the same window.


Rec See Figure 194 to determine window usage for standard push
 buttons and the corresponding functions for the Close choice on
 the system menu, the Enter key, and the Esc key.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 194. Use of Predefined Push Buttons |
|_____________ ______________ ______________ ______________ _____________|
| Type of | Push Buttons | Result of | Result of | Result of |
 | Window | (Listed in | Close Choice | Enter Key | Esc Key |
 | | the relative | in System | | |
 | | order they | menu | | |
 | | would appear | | | |
 | | in) | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Object | Any actions | Close | Any action | Cancel, if |
 | views | (for | (Optionally, | | used |
 | | example, | provide a | | |
 | | Print or | warning | | |
 | | Undo) | message for | | |
 | | | Save or | | |
 | | | Don't Save | | |
 | | | changes.) | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Settings | OK | Cancel | OK | Cancel |
 | (not | Apply(1) | (Does a | | (Does a |
 | immediately | Reset(2) | Reset, | | Reset, |
 | saved) | Cancel | then Close) | | then Close) |
 | | Help | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Settings | Close | Close | Close | Close |
 | (immediately| Help | | | |
 | saved) | | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Action | Action | Cancel or | Default | Cancel or |
 | Window | name(3) | Close(4) | action(5) | Close(4) |
 | | Cancel or | (Withdraw | | (Withdraw |
 | | Close | action | | action |
 | | Help | request) | | request) |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Information | OK | OK | OK | OK |
 | message | Help | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Progress | Close | Close | Pause | Stop if |
 | indicator | Stop | | if | supported, |
 | | (optional) | | supported, | otherwise |
 | | Pause and | | otherwise | Close |
 | | Resume | | Close | |
 | | (both | | | |
 | | optional) | | | |
 | | Help | | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Warning | Action | Cancel | Non-destructi|eCancel |
 | message | name(3) | (if | action | (if |
 | | (optional) | supported, | | supported, |
 | | Continue(8) | or else a | | or else a |
 | | Cancel | non-destructi|e | non-destruct|ve
 | | Help | action) | | action) |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Action | Action | Cancel | Retry | Cancel |
 | message | name(3) | (if | (if | (if |
 | (general | (optional) | supported, | supported, | supported, |
 | case) | Retry(9) | otherwise a | otherwise a | otherwise a |
 | | Cancel(7) | non-destructi|enon-destructi|enon-destruct|ve
 | | Help(10) | action) | action) | action) |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Action | Yes(6) | Choice of | Choice of | Choice of |
 | message | No | Yes/No that | Yes/No that | Yes/No that |
 | (simple | Help | does not | does not | does not |
 | case) | | lose data | lose data | lose data |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Notes: |
 | |
 | 1. Apply is typical when a large number of settings is possible, and |
 | when a user might want to apply a few at a time. |
 | |
 | 2. Both Reset and Apply are provided together. |
 | |
 | 3. One or more push buttons that contain the names of the actions |
 | must be available. |
 | |
 | 4. Cancel must remove the action window and return to the window from |
 | which the action was requested. |
 | |
 | 5. This assignment is optional; provide it for a useful, |
 | non-destructive action. |
 | |
 | 6. Yes and No each represent an action, or Yes represents an action |
 | and No is Cancel. |
 | |
 | 7. Use Cancel if it is practical. Affected user data must be |
 | returned to its original state or left in a useful state. |
 | |
 | 8. The window must have at least one action that continues the |
 | request and one action that cancels the request. |
 | |
 | 9. Use Retry if it is practical. |
 | |
 | 10. The window must have at least two from the set: "action," Retry, |
 | Cancel. |
 |________________________________________________________________________|






Essential Related Topics


° "Push Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.86


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Action Message" in topic 2.2.3


° "Close (Choice)" in topic 2.2.13


° "Default Action" in topic 2.2.24


° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45


° "Information Message" in topic 2.2.51


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Message" in topic 2.2.61


° "Progress Indicator" in topic 2.2.84


° "Warning Message" in topic 2.2.127


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.88 Radio Button (Control)




A control used to display mutually exclusive textual settings
choices.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a field of radio buttons to display mutually exclusive
 settings choices.




Guidelines


Fnd Use radio buttons for settings choices. Do not use radio
 buttons to represent action choices or routing choices.


Rec Avoid using a radio button for graphical choices, instead use a
 value set for graphical choices.


Fnd Use at least two radio buttons in each field.


Fnd Assign one of the choices in a radio-button field as the default
 except when the radio buttons represents a setting for more than
 one selected object and no single choice applies to all the
 objects.


Rec If a user can choose not to select any of the choices, provide a
 radio button labeled None or equivalent appropriate text.


Rec Arrange the radio buttons in a group in rows, columns, or both.


Rec If a radio button choice is currently unavailable, display it
 with unavailable-state emphasis.


Rec Assign a mnemonic to each radio-button choice.


Rec If a radio button has a mnemonic, provide access to the mnemonic
 by allowing a user to press the Alt key and that mnemonic.


Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a radio
 button choice unless the choice contains an abbreviation,
 acronym, or proper noun that should be capitalized.


Fnd When a field of radio buttons represents a setting shared by
 more than one selected object:


° Do not display a dot in any of the radio buttons if some,
but not all, of the selected objects have the setting turned
on.


° Display a dot in one of the radio buttons if that setting
applies to all of the selected objects.


Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Check Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.9


° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10


° "Field Prompt" in topic 2.2.35


° "Group Heading" in topic 2.2.43


° "Value Set (Control)" in topic 2.2.125

2.2.89 Random-Point Selection




A selection technique that allows a user to select objects as
the pointer touches them, while the selection button on a mouse
is pressed. The implementation of random-point selection is
random (swipe).











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide random-point selection techniques when multiple objects
 can be selected, in any order, not necessarily contiguously.
 For example, this provides a user with a technique to select any
 documents in a folder and then print those documents in the
 order they were selected with one action request.




Guidelines


Fnd In extended selection:


° Using the mouse, when the user presses the mouse selection
button on the first object to be selected and moves the
pointer over other objects to be selected, deselect all
other objects in the selection scope and select the
individual objects in the order the user identified them.


Fnd In multiple selection:


° Using the mouse, when the user presses the mouse selection
button on the first object to be selected and moves the
pointer over other objects to be selected, select the
individual objects in the order the user identified them.


Fnd Toggle the selection state of objects that the pointer touches
 when a user is using random-point selection. Objects that were
 not already in the same selection state as the first object then
 take on the selection state of the first object. In extended
 selection, all previously selected objects are deselected.


Rec Provide sufficient space between objects for a user to move the
 mouse around and not touch objects they do not wish to select.




Essential Related Topics


° "Selected-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.102


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103

2.2.90 Reflection (Object)




An object that is represented by more than one icon. If a user
changes an object's reflection, all other reflections of the
object are changed. If a user deletes a reflection, other
reflections of the object are not necessarily deleted.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide reflections for all objects to provide access to an
 object from more than one location.




Guidelines


Rec If you provide a choice that allows a user to create a
 reflection of an object and you provide an Edit menu, place the
 choice that creates the reflection in the Edit menu.


Rec If you provide a choice that allows a user to create a
 reflection of an object, place the choice that creates the
 reflection in the pop-up menu for the object when a reflection
 of the object can be created.


Rec When a user presses the reflection override key and performs a
 direct-manipulation operation on an object or group of selected
 objects, create a reflection of the indicated object or group of
 selected objects.


Rec If the object for which the Delete choice is requested supports
 reflections, display the Delete choice as a routing choice that
 leads to a cascaded menu with choices for deleting just this
 reflection or deleting the entire object and all reflections of
 the object.


Essential Related Topics


° "Create (Choice)" in topic 2.2.20


° "Delete (Choice)" in topic 2.2.25


° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64


° "Object" in topic 2.2.69

2.2.91 Refresh and Refresh Now (Choice)




Choices that allow a user to control whether changes made to
underlying data are immediately displayed in the current view or
are displayed upon user request at a later time. Refresh is a
 routing choice that leads to a cascaded menu or an action window
 that allows the user to select refresh options. Refresh now is
 an action choice that causes the current view to be immediately
 updated to match the underlying information.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide the Refresh and Refresh now choices to allow a user to
 control when a view will be updated to reflect changes in the
 underlying data. For example, provide Refresh and Refresh now
choices:


° To increase a user's control over the display of data when
the data can be changed by another user or by another
process.


° When the time it takes to redisplay the data could interfere
with a user's ability to interact with the data.


° When the data of interest to a user is located on another
system and subject to communications performance
constraints.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Refresh or Refresh now choices, and you
 provide a View menu, place the Refresh or Refresh now choices in
 the View menu.


Rec If you provide the Refresh or Refresh now choices for an object,
 place the Refresh or Refresh now choices in the pop-up menu for
 the object when the object can currently be refreshed.


Rec Provide at least the On and Off choices to allow a user to
 specify if the view will be updated.


Rec Provide object-specific choices as appropriate. For example,
 provide a short list of time intervals, such as 5 minutes, 10
minutes, or 30 minutes in a cascaded menu or provide more
 choices in an action window.


Rec If you provide the On, and Off choices, place them in a cascaded
 menu from the Refresh choice.


Fnd When a user selects the Refresh now choice, immediately update
 the view to display the current data.


Fnd When a user selects the On choice, continually update the view
 to display the most current data in the view.


Fnd When a user selects the Off choice, do not continue to update
 the view until a user selects the Refresh now or On choice.


Rec If you provide the On choice, make it the default setting unless
 a user has specified otherwise.


Fnd Display unavailable-state emphasis on the Refresh now choice if
 the current display is known to match the underlying data.


Rec If you provide the Refresh now choice and you do not currently
 know or can never know if the current display matches the
 underlying data, make the Refresh now choice available.


Fnd Display the Refresh now choice with unavailable-state emphasis
 if On is currently selected.


Fnd Assign "R" as the mnemonic for the Refresh choice.


Fnd Assign "N" as the mnemonic for the Refresh now choice.


Fnd Assign "O" as the mnemonic for the On choice.


Fnd Assign "F" as the mnemonic for the Off choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "View Menu" in topic 2.2.126

2.2.92 Restore (Choice)




An action choice that returns a window to the size it was and
the position it was in before it was previously minimized or
maximized.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd If a window can be minimized, provide a Restore choice to allow
 a user to return the window from the minimized state to its last
 saved size and position prior to being minimized.


Fnd If a window can be maximized, provide a Restore choice to allow
 a user to return the window from the maximized state to its last
 saved size and position prior to being maximized.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Restore choice, place it in the system menu.


Fnd Display the Restore choice with unavailable-state emphasis when
 the window is not maximized or minimized.


Fnd Change the maximize button to a restore button in the title bar
 when the size of a window can be changed and the window has been
 maximized.


Fnd When a user selects the Restore choice from the minimized state,
 return the window to the size it was and the position it was in
 before it was last minimized. For example, if a window was
 maximized prior to being minimized, display the window in the
 maximized state when a user selects the Restore choice.


Fnd When a user selects the restore button from the maximized state,
 return the window to the size it was and the position it was in
 before it was last maximized. For example, if a window was at a
 user-defined size prior to being maximized, return the window to
 the user-defined size when the user selects the Restore choice.


Fnd When a user selects the Restore choice from a minimized work
 area, restore any associated windows that were open when the
 work area was last minimized.


Rec When a user restores a minimized work area, restore the work
 area window and any associated windows to their previous states,
 regardless of the amount of time that has elapsed since a user
 last restored the work area, and regardless of whether the
 user's system has been turned off and on again.


Fnd When a user selects the Restore choice from a minimized primary
 window, restore any secondary windows that were open when the
 primary window was last minimized.


Rec When a user restores a minimized primary window, restore the
 primary window and any secondary windows to their previous
 states, regardless of the amount of time that has elapsed since
 a user last restored the primary window, and regardless of
 whether the user's system has been turned off and on again.


Fnd Change the restore button to the maximize button after a window
 has been restored to a state other than maximized.


Fnd Assign Alt+F5 as the shortcut key combination for the Restore
choice.


Fnd Assign "R" as the mnemonic for the Restore choice.


Essential Related Topics


° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Maximize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.58


° "Minimize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.62


° "Size (Choice)" in topic 2.2.109

2.2.93 Routing (Choice Type)




A choice that displays a pull-down menu, a cascaded menu, or a
window that contains additional choices used to further specify
or clarify the routing choice.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Use a routing choice to display a pull-down menu or cascaded
 menu or to display an action window.




Guidelines


Fnd Use a right-pointing arrow (ÿ) after a pull-down menu choice,
 cascaded menu, or pop-up menu choice that causes a cascaded menu
 to be displayed.


Fnd Use ellipses (...) after a choice in a pull-down menu, cascaded
 menu, pop-up menu, or on a push button that causes an action
 window to be displayed.


Fnd Do not use ellipses (...) or a right-pointing arrow (ÿ) after a
 menu bar choice.


Essential Related Topics


° "Action Choice (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.2


° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10


° "Settings (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.105


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59


° "Push Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.86

2.2.94 Save (Choice)




An action choice that stores the object in the window on a
storage device, such as a disk or diskette.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a Save choice for each object that is not automatically
 saved when changed.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide a Save choice, and you provide a File menu, place
 the Save choice in the File menu.


Fnd Do not close the window when a user selects the Save choice.


Fnd Do not change the appearance or position of the object in a
 window when a user selects the Save choice. For example do not
 scroll the object in the window.


Rec If the object being saved does not have a user-assigned name,
 display the Save as window.


Fnd Assign "S" as the mnemonic for the Save choice.


Essential Related Topics


° "File Menu (Application-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.36


° "File Menu (Object-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.37


° "Save As (Choice)" in topic 2.2.96

2.2.95 Save As (Action Window)




A window from the Save as choice that allows a user to save a
 copy of an object by giving it a different name.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Display the Save As window when a user selects the Save as
choice.




Guidelines


Rec Display the Save As window in a secondary window that is
 dependent upon the window from which the Save as choice was
 selected.


Rec Provide an entry field to allow a user to type the name of the
 new object.


Rec Provide a drop-down list that allows a user to display a list of
 the file types that can be saved.


Rec Provide a drop-down list that allows a user to specify the
 storage device, such as the "A:," "B:," or "C:" drive.


Rec Provide a list box of the appropriate containers. Use a filled
 in greater-than symbol (ÿ) to the left of the current container,
 and show the containment hierarchy by indenting containers that
 are within another container.


Rec Provide in a list box the names of all objects in the specified
 container and on the specified storage device that match the
 specified type.


Rec Do not provide a default action, such as a double-click, that
 allows a user to select an object within the list of existing
 objects. Use this list only to present the names of existing
 objects; not as an easy way to overwrite an existing object. To
 overwrite an existing object, allow a user to type its name into
 the entry field that presents the new object name.


Rec Assign the default action, such as double-click, for a container
 in the list of containers to display or refresh the list of
 objects.


Fnd Provide a Cancel push button to allow a user to close the Save
As window without saving the current object.


Fnd Provide a Save push button to allow a user to save the current
 object under the specified name.


Fnd Provide a push button labeled Help.




Essential Related Topics


° "Save (Choice)" in topic 2.2.94




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Default Action" in topic 2.2.24


° "Drop-Down List (Control)" in topic 2.2.31


° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33


° "File Menu (Application-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.36


° "List Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.56


° "Open (Action Window)" in topic 2.2.72


° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87

2.2.96 Save As (Choice)




A routing choice that presents a window that allows a user to
specify a name for the object to be saved on a storage device,
such as a disk or diskette. The original object remains
unchanged if a different name is used.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a Save as choice for each object in an
 application-oriented environment for which a user can save with
 a specified name.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide a Save as choice, and you provide a File menu,
 place the Save as choice in the File menu.


Fnd Display the Save As action window when the user selects the Save
as choice.


Fnd Assign "A" as the mnemonic for the Save as choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "File Menu (Application-Oriented)" in topic 2.2.36


° "Save As (Action Window)" in topic 2.2.95

2.2.97 Scroll Bar




A window component, associated with a scrollable area, that
indicates to a user that more information is available or can be
added in a particular direction and can be scrolled into view.
The two types of scroll bars are: horizontal and vertical. The
components of a scroll bar are the scroll box, shaft, and scroll
buttons.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a scroll bar if the information is not fully visible
 within a window in a particular direction.


Fnd Provide a scroll bar if the information in a window can be
 extended to a size that is larger than the window. For example,
 provide scroll bars for a text object that can become smaller or
 larger as a user works with it.




Guidelines


Fnd Provide a scroll bar along the dimension in which more
 information is available. For example, if an object is wider,
 provide a horizontal scroll bar, and if an object is taller,
 provide a vertical scroll bar.


Fnd If the information in the window is extendable, but is not
 currently scrollable, display the scroll bar with
 unavailable-state emphasis.


Fnd Use a scroll bar when scrolling windows. Use a slider to
 display a numeric value.


Rec When a user scrolls by dragging the scroll box, update the
 information in the window as the user drags the scroll box.


Rec If it is not possible to continually update information in a
 window as it is being scrolled, update the information in the
 window when the user pauses scrolling.


Fnd Assign scrolling actions as in Figure 195.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 195. User Actions and Scrolling Actions |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| User action | Scrolling action |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Click once on up scroll button (") | Scroll one smallest |
 | | vertical-scrolling-increment |
 | | toward bottom of window |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Click once on down scroll button | Scroll one smallest |
 | () | vertical-scrolling-increment |
 | | toward top of window |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Click once on right scroll button | Scroll one smallest |
 | (ÿ) | horizontal-scrolling-increment |
 | | toward left of window |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Click once on left scroll button | Scroll one smallest |
 | () | horizontal-scrolling-increment |
 | | toward right of window |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Click once on scroll shaft above | Scroll one |
 | scroll box in vertical scroll bar | vertical-page-scrolling-increment |
 | | toward bottom of window |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Click once on scroll shaft below | Scroll one |
 | scroll box in vertical scroll bar | vertical-page-scrolling-increment |
 | | toward top of window |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Click once on scroll shaft to | Scroll one |
 | right of scroll box in horizontal | horizontal-page-scrolling-incremen|
 | scroll bar | toward left of window |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Click once on scroll shaft to left | Scroll one |
 | of scroll box in horizontal scroll | horizontal-page-scrolling-incremen|
 | bar | right of window |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Drag scroll box with selection | Scroll so that information |
 | button and release button when | indicated by position of scroll |
 | scroll box is in new location in | box is visible in window |
 | scroll shaft | |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|


Rec When cursoring to a control causes the control to be scrolled
 into view, scroll as much of the control into view as possible.
 For example, if cursoring to a radio button field causes
 scrolling, scroll as much of the radio button field into view as
 possible.


Fnd Display a scroll button with unavailable-state emphasis when
 there is no more information in the direction indicated on the
 button.


Fnd Adjust the size of a scroll box so that it is proportional to
 the amount of information that can be visible in the scrollable
 area in relation to the total amount of information.


Fnd Adjust the position of a scroll box so that it indicates the
 position of the information visible in the scrollable area in
 relation to the total amount of information.


Fnd Do not change the size of a scroll box unless:


° Information is added to or removed from the object
represented in the window


° The window's size changes


Essential Related Topics


° "Scrolling Increment" in topic 2.2.98


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64


° "Size (Choice)" in topic 2.2.109


° "Unavailable-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.122


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.98 Scrolling Increment




The amount of information that can be scrolled with a single
scrolling action.


Guidelines


Rec Allow a user to control the scrolling increment. For example,
 give the user an option of page scrolling text the entire height
 of the scrollable area, instead of the height of the scrollable
 area minus the height of one line.


Rec Make the initial scrolling increments equal to those shown in
 Figure 196.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 196. Scrolling Increments |
|_____________ _____________________________ ____________________________|
| Type of | Smallest Scrolling | Page Scrolling Increment |
 | data | Increment | |
 | |______________ ______________|______________ _____________|
 | | Horizontal | Vertical | Horizontal | Vertical |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Text | Width of em | Bottom of | Width of | Height of |
 | | (M) | one line to | scrollable | scrollable |
 | | character | bottom of | area minus | area minus |
 | | (1) | next line | width of one | some |
 | | | | em (M) | portion of |
 | | | | character | the area |
 | | | | | (for |
 | | | | | example, |
 | | | | | one line) |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Icon | Width of | Height of | Width of | Height of |
 | | smallest | smallest | scrollable | scrollable |
 | | icon | icon | area minus | area minus |
 | | | | width of | height of |
 | | | | smallest | smallest |
 | | | | icon | icon |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Graphic | 5% of the | 5% of the | 95% of the | 95% of the |
 | | width of the | height of | width of the | height of |
 | | view, or by | the view, or | view | the view |
 | | units of a | by units of | | |
 | | scale | a scale | | |
 | | specified by | specified by | | |
 | | the user | the user | | |
 |_____________|______________|______________|______________|_____________|
 | Note: |
 | |
 | 1. Smallest horizontal scrolling increment is the width of em (M) |
 | character when scrolling using the arrow keys or scroll bar. When |
 | typing, the increment should be a percentage of the entire field. |
 |________________________________________________________________________|


Rec When a user is scrolling, make the information being scrolled
 appear to be scrolling smoothly by actually moving the data in
 smaller increments than the smallest scrolling increment.




Essential Related Topics


° "Scroll Bar" in topic 2.2.97




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64

2.2.99 Secondary Window




A window that is used to supplement the interaction in the
primary window it is dependent on.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a secondary window to display an action window. For
 example, use a secondary window to display an action window that
 allows a user to specify criteria associated with an Include
choice.


Rec Use a secondary window to view an object only if the secondary
 window is used to support interaction with its associated
 primary window.


Rec Use a secondary window to display a message.




Guidelines


Fnd Remove a secondary window when the primary window it is
 associated with is closed or minimized.


Fnd If a secondary window was open when its associated primary
 window was closed or minimized, display that secondary window
 when its associated primary window is opened or restored.


Rec Provide a sizing border that allows a user to change the size of
 a secondary window.


Rec Make secondary windows as modeless as possible. For example,
 when a user begins a process that searches a text object, allow
 the user to interact with the text object while continuing to
 display the Find action window on top of the text window.


Rec Allow a user to minimize a secondary window that displays a view
 of an object.




Essential Related Topics


° "Primary Window" in topic 2.2.81


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Action Window" in topic 2.2.4

2.2.100 Select All and Deselect All (Choice)




Action choices that allow a user to select all the objects in a
view or deselect all of the selected objects in the view from
which the choice was selected.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide the Select all choice to allow a user to select all
 objects in the view.


Rec Provide the Deselect all choice to allow a user to deselect all
 objects in the view.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Select all and Deselect all choices, and you
 provide an Edit menu, place the Select all and Deselect all
choices in the Edit menu.


Fnd Display the following choices with unavailable-state emphasis
 under the following conditions:


° Select all - when all objects in the view are selected.
 ° Deselect all - when no objects in the view are selected.


Fnd When a user selects the Select all choice, select all the
 objects in the view, including all objects in the view that are
 not currently visible in the window.


Fnd When a user selects the Deselect all choice, cancel the
 selection of all objects in the view, including all object in
 the view that are not currently visible in the window.


Fnd Assign Ctrl+/ as the shortcut key combination for the Select all
choice.


Fnd Assign Ctrl+\ as the shortcut key combination for the Deselect
all choice.


Fnd Assign "S" as the mnemonic for the Select all choice.


Fnd Assign "L" as the mnemonic for the Deselect all choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103

2.2.101 Selected Menu




A pull-down menu from the Selected choice on a menu bar that
 contains choices that allow a user to work with the selected
 objects in the current view.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a Selected choice on the menu bar in each window that
 provides a menu bar if any objects in that window can be
 selected and displayed in another window, printed, or operated
 on by some other action other than those provided in the Edit
menu, unless those choices are provided on push buttons in the
window. For example, provide a Selected choice in a container
 to allow a user to open selected objects that are in that
 container.




Guidelines


Rec Include in the Selected menu choices that apply to the selected
 object or group of objects.


Rec If nothing is currently selected, include in the Selected menu
 of a view only choices displayed with unavailable-state emphasis
 that apply to the object on which the cursor is currently
 positioned. For example, provide in the Selected menu of a
 folder choices that are specific to a document object if the
 object on which the cursor is currently positioned is a
 document.


Rec Do not display choices that can never apply to the selected
 object, or object on which the cursor is positioned if nothing
 is selected, even if those choices could apply to other objects
 in another context in the same view. For example, if a user
 moves the cursor from a container object to a data object,
 remove from the Selected menu those choices that can apply only
 to container objects and add choices that apply to data objects.


Fnd If you provide an Open as choice for the selectable objects in a
 view, place it in the Selected menu.


Fnd If you provide a Print choice for the selectable objects in a
 view, place it in the Selected menu.


Rec Provide other object-specific choices as needed. For example,
 provide a Send choice.


Fnd Assign "S" as the mnemonic for the Selected menu choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32


° "Menu Bar" in topic 2.2.60


° "Open As (Choice)" in topic 2.2.71


° "Print (Choice)" in topic 2.2.82

2.2.102 Selected-State Emphasis (Cue)




Emphasis used on a choice or object to indicate that it is
selected.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Display selected-state emphasis on all selected choices and
 objects.




Guidelines


Rec Display selected-state emphasis by changing the foreground and
 background colors of the selected object to those set in the
 operating environment.


Rec Display selected-state emphasis on all selected objects or
 groups of selected objects in all windows simultaneously.




Essential Related Topics


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103

2.2.103 Selection Types and Techniques




Methods that a user can employ to identify objects to which
actions are to be applied. The three types of selection are:
single selection, extended selection, and multiple selection.
The three techniques for selection are point selection,
point-to-endpoint selection, and random-point selection.


FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide selection techniques to allow a user to identify objects
 and choices for subsequent interaction.




Guidelines


Fnd Display selected-state emphasis on an object to indicate that it
 is currently selected.


Rec When an action or settings choice is applied to a selected
 object, do not change the selection state of that object, unless
 changing the selection state of the object is a part of the
 operation.


Fnd Do not apply an action to an object as a result of selecting
 that object.


Fnd When only one object can be in the selected state at any time,
 provide single selection.


Fnd When any number of objects can be in the selected state at any
 time, provide multiple selection.


Rec When a user will typically operate on one object at a time but
 multiple objects can be operated on at the same time, provide
 extended selection.


Fnd When extended selection is provided for a view, allow a keyboard
 user to press Shift+F8 to establish a mode in which the initial
 deselection is bypassed and the new selected objects are added
 or removed from the current group of selected objects.


Fnd When extended selection is provided for a view, allow a user
 using a pointing device to modify extended selection by pressing
 the Ctrl key.


Rec When single selection is provided for a view, deselect all
 objects in the scope when a user clicks a button on blank space,
 unless selection is required on at least one object at all
 times.


Rec When multiple selection is provided for a view, do not affect
 the selection state of objects in the scope when a user clicks a
 button on blank space.


Rec When extended selection is provided for a view, deselect all
 objects in the scope when a user clicks a button on blank space.


Fnd Refer to Figure 197, Figure 198, and Figure 199 to determine
 which selection techniques to provide for a view.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 197. Single Selection Techniques |
|____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
| Technique | Mouse | Keyboard | Result |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Point | Click mouse | With cursor on | Deselects |
 | selection | selection button | object to be | currently-selected|
 | | with pointer on | selected, press | object in |
 | | object to be | Ctrl+Spacebar; | selection scope; |
 | | selected. | also Spacebar if | selects single |
 | | | spacebar is not | identified |
 | | | used to type a | object. |
 | | | space. | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Note: In zero-based single-selection mode, selecting the |
 | currently-selected object does not deselect the object. To deselect |
 | the currently-selected object, select the Deselect all choice. |
 |________________________________________________________________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 198. Multiple Selection Techniques |
|____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
| Technique | Mouse | Keyboard | Result |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Point | Click mouse | With cursor on | Toggles the |
 | selection | selection button | object to be | selection state |
 | | with pointer on | selected or | of the single |
 | | object to be | deselected, press | identified |
 | | selected or | Ctrl+Spacebar; | object; does not |
 | | deselected. | also spacebar if | affect the state |
 | | | spacebar is not | of other objects. |
 | | | used to type a | |
 | | | space. | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Point-to-en|point | | |
 | selection | | | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Area | Press mouse | Not applicable. | Toggle the |
 | (Marquee) | selection button | | selection state |
 | | at the start | | of the first |
 | | point and move | | object and make |
 | | the pointer to | | the selection |
 | | the end point; | | state of all |
 | | release the mouse | | objects within |
 | | selection button | | the identified |
 | | at the end point. | | area the same as |
 | | | | the new selection |
 | | | | state of the |
 | | | | first object. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Range | Press mouse | Press Shift at | Toggle the |
 | (Swipe) | selection button | the start point | selection state |
 | | at the start | and hold while | of the first |
 | | point and move | using | object and make |
 | | the pointer to | cursor-movement | the selection |
 | | the end point; | keys to move the | state of all |
 | | release the mouse | cursor to the end | other objects in |
 | | selection button | point; release | order from the |
 | | at the end point. | Shift at end | identified start |
 | | | point. | point to the |
 | | | | identified end |
 | | | | point the same as |
 | | | | the new selection |
 | | | | state of the |
 | | | | first object. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Range | Click mouse | Not applicable. | Toggle the |
 | (Click) | selection button | | selection state |
 | | at the start | | of the first |
 | | point; press | | object and make |
 | | Shift and click | | the selection |
 | | the mouse | | state of all |
 | | selection button | | other objects in |
 | | at the end point, | | order from the |
 | | then release | | identified start |
 | | Shift key. | | point to the |
 | | | | identified |
 | | | | endpoint the same |
 | | | | as the new |
 | | | | selection state |
 | | | | of the first |
 | | | | object. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Random-poin| | | |
 | selection | | | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Random | Press mouse | Not applicable. | Toggle the |
 | (Swipe) | selection button | | selection state |
 | | with pointer on | | of the first |
 | | first object to | | object and make |
 | | be selected; | | the selection |
 | | move the pointer | | state of all |
 | | over other | | identified |
 | | objects to be | | objects in the |
 | | selected; release | | order the user |
 | | mouse selection | | identified the |
 | | button. | | objects the same |
 | | | | as the new |
 | | | | selection state |
 | | | | of the first |
 | | | | object. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|




 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 199. Extended Selection Techniques |
|____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
| Technique | Mouse | Keyboard | Result |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Point | Click mouse | With cursor on | Deselects all |
 | selection | selection button | object to be | other objects in |
 | | with pointer on | selected, press | selection scope; |
 | | object to be | Ctrl+Spacebar; | selects single |
 | | selected. | also spacebar if | identified |
 | | | spacebar is not | object. |
 | | | used to type a | |
 | | | space. | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Point-to-endpoint selection |
 | |
 |____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
 | Area | Press mouse | Not applicable. | Deselects all |
 | (Marquee) | selection button | | other objects in |
 | | at the start | | selection scope; |
 | | point and move | | selects all |
 | | the pointer to | | objects contained |
 | | the end point; | | within the |
 | | release the mouse | | identified area. |
 | | selection button | | |
 | | at the end point. | | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Range | Press mouse | Press Shift at | Deselects all |
 | (Swipe) | selection button | the start point | other objects in |
 | | at the start | and hold while | selection scope; |
 | | point and move | using | selects all |
 | | the pointer to | cursor-movement | objects in order |
 | | the end point; | keys to move the | from the |
 | | release the mouse | cursor to the end | identified start |
 | | selection button | point; release | point to the |
 | | at the end point. | Shift at end | identified end |
 | | | point. | point. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Range | Click mouse | Not applicable. | Deselects all |
 | (Click) | selection button | | other objects in |
 | | at the start | | selection scope; |
 | | point; press | | selects all |
 | | Shift and click | | objects in order |
 | | the mouse | | from the |
 | | selection button | | identified start |
 | | at the end point, | | point to the |
 | | then release | | identified end |
 | | Shift key. | | point. |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Random-point selection |
 | |
 |____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
 | Random | Press mouse | Not applicable. | Deselects all |
 | (Swipe) | selection button | | other objects in |
 | | with pointer on | | selection scope; |
 | | first object to | | selects |
 | | be selected; | | individual |
 | | move the pointer | | objects in the |
 | | over other | | order the user |
 | | objects to be | | identified the |
 | | selected; release | | objects to be |
 | | mouse selection | | selected. |
 | | button. | | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Note: |
 | |
 | Modifying extended selection |
 | |
 | When a user is using a mouse, pressing the Ctrl key while performing a |
 | selection technique allows the user to add objects to and remove |
 | objects from the current group of selected objects by bypassing the |
 | initial deselection. |
 | |
 | In point selection and random-point selection, pressing the Ctrl key |
 | while selecting an object or group of objects toggles the selection |
 | state of the first object or group of objects selected and that new |
 | state becomes the selection state of all objects selected thereafter |
 | until the Ctrl key is released. |
 | |
 | In point-to-endpoint selection, the selection state of the start point |
 | is toggled first and that new state becomes the selection state of all |
 | objects within the range or area. |
 | |
 | In point selection and random-point selection, pressing spacebar |
 | toggles the selection state of the identified object. |
 |________________________________________________________________________|




Essential Related Topics


° "Extended Selection" in topic 2.2.34


° "Multiple Selection" in topic 2.2.66


° "Single Selection" in topic 2.2.108


° "Text Entry" in topic 2.2.119




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Marquee Selection" in topic 2.2.57


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64


° "Point Selection" in topic 2.2.78


° "Point-to-Endpoint Selection" in topic 2.2.79


° "Random-Point Selection" in topic 2.2.89


° "Select All and Deselect All (Choice)" in topic 2.2.100

2.2.104 Separator




A boundary, such as blank space, a line, or color change, that
provides a visual distinction between two adjacent areas.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a separator to visually separate choices into distinct
 choice groups in menus and fields of controls into distinct
 groups in windows.




Guidelines


Rec Use blank space as a separator, except in menus.


Rec In menus, use a line as a separator.




Essential Related Topics


° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Column Heading" in topic 2.2.14


° "Group Box" in topic 2.2.42


° "Group Heading" in topic 2.2.43

2.2.105 Settings (Choice Type)




A choice that allows a user to change a property of an object.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a settings choice to allow a user to change a property of an
 object.




Guidelines


Rec Display settings choices in a notebook.


Rec Avoid placing settings choices on push buttons or in menus.


Rec Allow a user to place settings choices in menus as a
 customization option.


Rec If a menu contains a group of settings choices that are not
 mutually exclusive, display a check mark to the left of each
 choice that has been selected. Remove the check mark when the
 choice no longer applies to the object.


Rec If a menu contains a group of settings choices that are mutually
 exclusive, display unavailable-state emphasis on the choice that
 currently applies. Remove the unavailable-state emphasis when
 the choice no longer applies.


Rec When a user selects a settings choice, immediately apply the
 choice to the selected object or group of objects.


Rec If it is not practical to apply settings choices to an object
 immediately, provide a sample within the window that
 demonstrates the change that will occur when the settings are
 applied. For example, instead of applying a font change to a
 large document immediately, display sample text with the new
 font selection and provide an Apply push button that applies the
 selected font to the text in the document when the user makes a
 final decision.




Essential Related Topics


° "Action Choice (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.2


° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10


° "Routing (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.93




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Notebook (Control)" in topic 2.2.68

2.2.106 Shortcut Key




A key or combination of keys that a user can press to perform an
action that is available from a menu.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide the predefined shortcut key assignment for each
 predefined choice in a menu.


Rec Provide a unique shortcut key assignment for each
 frequently-used choice in a menu.




Guidelines


Rec If a choice in a menu has a shortcut key assignment, display it
 next to that choice in the menu.


Rec Left-align shortcut keys to the right of the choices in a menu.


Rec Allow a user to hide or display shortcut keys. For example,
 provide in a settings view of an object a check box choice
 labeled Display shortcut keys.


Rec Ship products with shortcut keys not displayed as the default.


Fnd Include all shortcut key assignments in keys help.


Rec Allow a user to change shortcut key assignments.


Fnd If a user can change shortcut key assignments, display the new
 assignments in menus and list the new assignments in keys help.


Fnd When a user turns off the display of shortcut keys in menus,
 continue to provide access to the choices that are displayed in
 the menus using shortcut keys.


Fnd When displaying shortcut keys, use a plus sign (+) between the
 key names to indicate that a user must press two or more keys
 at the same time. For example, use Alt+F4 for the Close choice.


Fnd Perform the function assigned to a shortcut key only if it is
 assigned within the active window.


Fnd If short menus are displayed, do not perform functions assigned
 to choices displayed only in full menus.


Fnd Perform the identical function, whether a user presses the
 shortcut key or selects the associated choice.


Fnd If a shortcut key uses an alphabetic character, apply the choice
 if a user presses either the uppercase or lowercase character.


Rec Identify shortcut keys by their actual key-top engravings.


Rec Do not assign more than one shortcut key to the same function.


Rec Assign the same shortcut key for the same choice in all windows
 that provide that choice.


Rec Use the Ctrl key as part of product-specific shortcut key
 assignments.


Rec Avoid using the Alt key as part of the shortcut key assignment.
 Alt should be used for mnemonic access only.


Fnd Assign shortcut keys as in Figure 200:


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 200. Shortcut Key Assignments |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Function | Shortcut key |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Clear | Delete (unless a Delete choice is |
 | | also provided) |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Close | Alt+F4 |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Copy | Ctrl+Insert |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Create | Alt+Insert |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Cut | Shift+Delete |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Delete | Delete |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Deselect all | Ctrl+\ |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | General help | F2 (in a Help window only) |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Help index | F11 (in a Help window only) |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Hide | Alt+F9 |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Keys help | F9 (in a Help window only) |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Maximize | Alt+F10 |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Minimize | Alt+F9 |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Move | Alt+F7 |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Paste | Shift+Insert |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Redo | Shift+Alt+__(backspace) |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Refresh now | F5 |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Restore | Alt+F5 |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Select all | Ctrl+/ |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Size | Alt+F8 |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Tutorial | Shift+F2 (in a Help window only) |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Undo | Alt+__(backspace) |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Using help | Shift+F10 (in a Help window only) |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Window list (in the system menu) | Ctrl+Esc |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|




Essential Related Topics


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59


° "Short Menus and Full Menus (Choice)" in topic 2.2.107

2.2.107 Short Menus and Full Menus (Choice)




Choices that allow a user to change the number of choices that
appear in menus. Short menus contain a limited number of
choices. Full menus contain all the possible choices for the
window that they are associated with. When a user selects
either the Short menus or the Full menus choice, any or all
 menus are affected.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide both a Short menus choice and a Full menus choice for an
 object that has a large number of choices and there is a useful
 subset of choices for new users. This presents a simpler
 interface for the new user to learn.




Guidelines


Rec If you provide the Short menus and the Full menus choices and
 you provide settings views, place the Short menus and Full menus
choices in the settings view of the object as radio buttons.


Rec If you provide the Short menus and Full menus choices and you do
 not provide settings views, place the Short menus and Full menus
choices in the Options menu in the window displaying a view of
 that object.


Rec Include in the short menus the minimum number of choices
 necessary to accomplish useful work. For example, in making
 this decision, developers might consider which choices might be
 offered in higher-priced and lower-priced versions of the
 product and separate them along those lines.


Fnd When displaying short menus, do not reserve space for choices
 that are included in the full menus but are not displayed in the
 short menus.


Fnd When displaying short menus, do not support shortcut keys for
 choices that are included in the full menus but are not
 displayed in the short menus.


Fnd If a user selects the Full menus choice from the Options menu,
 display the choice with unavailable-state emphasis until the
 user selects the Short menus choice.


Fnd If a user selects the Short menus choice from the Options menu,
 display the choice with unavailable-state emphasis until the
 user selects the Full menus choice.


Fnd Do not change the location of a choice from one pull-down menu
 to another when a user changes from full menus to short menus.


Fnd When selecting the Short menus choice would remove all choices
 from a pull-down menu, remove that menu bar choice from the menu
 bar rather than displaying the menu bar choice with
 unavailable-state emphasis.


Fnd When selecting the Short menus choice would remove all choices
 in a cascaded menu, remove the choice that causes the cascaded
 menu to be displayed rather than displaying that choice with
 unavailable-state emphasis.


Rec When selecting the Short menus choice would reduce a cascaded
 menu to only one choice, do not use a cascaded menu. Instead,
 replace the cascading choice with the choice from the cascaded
 menu. For example, if Icons is the only choice that would
 cascade from the Open as choice, change the name to Open as
icons and do not make it a cascading choice.


Rec Make the Short menus choice the default to allow new users to
 easily use a product to accomplish basic tasks.


Fnd Assign "S" as the mnemonic for the Short menus choice that
 appears in the Options menu.


Fnd Assign "F" as the mnemonic for the Full menus choice that
 appears in the Options menu.


Essential Related Topics


° "Options Menu" in topic 2.2.73




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59


° "Radio Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.88


° "Settings (Choice Type)" in topic 2.2.105

2.2.108 Single Selection




A type of selection that allows a user to have only one object
in the selected state at any one time.


FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use single selection when only one object can be operated on at
 a time.




Guidelines


Fnd See Figure 201 to determine which single selection techniques to
 use.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 201. Single Selection Techniques |
|____________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________|
| Technique | Mouse | Keyboard | Result |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Point | Click mouse | With cursor on | Deselects |
 | selection | selection button | object to be | currently-selected|
 | | with pointer on | selected, press | object in |
 | | object to be | Ctrl+Spacebar; | selection scope; |
 | | selected. | also Spacebar if | selects single |
 | | | spacebar is not | identified |
 | | | used to type a | object. |
 | | | space. | |
 |____________|___________________|___________________|___________________|
 | Note: In zero-based single-selection mode, selecting the |
 | currently-selected object does not deselect the object. To deselect |
 | the currently-selected object, select the Deselect all choice. |
 |________________________________________________________________________|


Rec Use automatic selection as a convenience to a user when one
 object must always be selected, such as in a list box used to
 display a list of fonts.




Essential Related Topics


° "Automatic Selection" in topic 2.2.7


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Extended Selection" in topic 2.2.34


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64


° "Multiple Selection" in topic 2.2.66

2.2.109 Size (Choice)




An action choice that allows a user to change the size of a
window.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a Size choice when a user can change the size of a
 window.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Size choice, place it in the system menu.


Fnd When a user selects the Size choice, use the operating
 environment's mechanism that allows a user to change the size of
 a window.


Fnd Assign Alt+F8 as the shortcut key combination for the Size
choice.


Fnd Assign "S" as the mnemonic for the Size choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29


° "Maximize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.58


° "Minimize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.62


° "Restore (Choice)" in topic 2.2.92


° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.110 Slider (Control)




A control that represents a quantity and its relationship to the
range of possible values for that quantity. The control also
allows a user to change the value of the quantity. The slider
consists of a slider arm, slider shaft, and optionally, detents,
a scale and slider buttons.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a slider when it is useful to see the current value relative
 to the range of possible values.




Guidelines


Fnd If a user cannot change the value displayed in a slider, do not
 display a slider arm or slider buttons.


Rec Provide a scale to indicate the units of measure represented by
 the slider. For example, provide an incremental scale in units
 of millimeters to indicate length or provide an incremental
 scale in units of minutes to indicate time.


Rec Provide slider buttons to allow the user to move one smallest
 increment.


Rec Provide additional controls that can affect the slider setting.
 For example, provide a Reset push button.


Rec If a scale is displayed, allow a user to change the units of
 measure that the scale represents. For example, allow the user
 to change the scale from inches to millimeters.


Rec Allow a user to set the exact value represented by the detent,
 unless the slider is read-only.


Rec Provide detents to allow a user to easily set values that have
 special meaning. For example, on a slider used to set
 temperature for heating a room, provide a detent at 68 degrees.


Rec Allow a user to specify or change the value or values for which
 a detent will be displayed.


Rec If the exact value of the quantity represented is important to a
 user, provide a separate control in addition to the slider to
 display the value. For example, use an entry field to display
 the current value represented by the slider.


Rec Fill the slider shaft when the proportion of the value is more
 important than the value itself. For example, in a progress
 indicator to show relative amount of process completed and not
 completed.


Rec If you fill a slider shaft, fill horizontal sliders from the
 left to the slider arm and vertical sliders from the bottom to
 the slider arm.




Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Progress Indicator" in topic 2.2.84


° "Scroll Bar" in topic 2.2.97

2.2.111 Sort (Choice)




A routing choice that displays an action window or a cascaded
menu that allows a user to arrange the objects in a view into a
specified order.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a Sort choice for all objects whose contents can be
 sorted in a way that is meaningful to a user.


Rec Provide a Sort choice to allow a user to sort the contents of
 the current view into a particular order and to maintain that
 order as new objects are added to the object displayed in the
 window.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide a Sort choice, and you provide a View menu, place
 the Sort choice in the View menu.


Rec When the contents of a view are sorted, indicate the sorting
 order. For example, display "A-Z" in the status area to
 indicate that the view was sorted alphabetically.


Fnd Display an action window or a cascaded menu to allow a user to
 specify the sort criteria.


Rec When an object is added to a group of objects that are
 maintained in a specific order, place the new object in its
 correct position.


Rec If an object is added to a group of sorted objects, but its
 position is not currently visible, provide an indication that it
 was accepted. For example, increase the count displayed in the
 status area by one.


Fnd Assign "S" as the mnemonic for the Sort choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Status Area (Cue)" in topic 2.2.116


° "View Menu" in topic 2.2.126

2.2.112 Source Emphasis (Cue)




A visible cue that indicates the source object of a
direct-manipulation operation.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Display source emphasis on an object during a
 direct-manipulation operation.


Guidelines


Rec Display source emphasis by reducing the contrast of the object
 being manipulated. For example, change an object's icon by
 changing every other pel to the background color thus making the
 icon appear to dim.




Essential Related Topics


° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29

2.2.113 Spin Button (Control)




A control used to display, in sequence, a ring of related but
mutually exclusive choices. It contains a field that can accept
user input, which allows a user to make a selection by typing a
valid choice, or a field that can display a value that the user
can merely accept. The user can change the value by spinning
through the ring of choices.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a spin button to display a list of choices that have a
 logical consecutive order. For example, use a spin button for a
 list of the months of the year. When a list of choices does not
 have a logical consecutive order, use a drop-down list or
 drop-down combination box.




Guidelines


Rec When all the possible values are in the list of choices, make
 the spin button field a read-only field.


Rec When all the possible values are not included in the list of
 choices, make the spin button field an entry field.


Fnd When using a spin button for alphabetical values, move down the
 order when a user selects the Down Arrow and back up the order
 when a user selects the Up Arrow. For example, if the letter
 "S" is currently displayed and a user selects the Up Arrow,
 display the letter "R;" if a user selects the Down Arrow,
 display the letter "T."


Fnd When using a spin button for a value that represents magnitude,
 such as a list of numbers, display a larger value when a user
 selects the Up Arrow and a smaller value when a user selects the
 Down Arrow.


Fnd Present the choices as a ring of choices that wrap. For
 example, if a user is at the largest number and presses the Up
 Arrow, the smallest number is displayed and vice versa so that
 the user can spin through the all the choices by pressing the
 same arrow.




Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Drop-Down Combination Box (Control)" in topic 2.2.30


° "Drop-Down List (Control)" in topic 2.2.31

2.2.114 Split (Choice)




An action choice that allows a user to divide a window to
display a view of an object in more than one pane of a window
and to subsequently change the sizes of the panes.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a Split choice for each window that can be split or is
 currently split.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Split choice, place it in the system menu.


Rec When a user selects the Split choice and the window has not
 previously been split, display a split bar and allow the user to
 position the split bar in the window.


Rec When a user selects the Split choice and the window has
 previously been split, allow the user to reposition the current
 split bar.


Fnd Assign "P" as the mnemonic for the Split choice.


Essential Related Topics


° "Split Window" in topic 2.2.115


° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117

2.2.115 Split Window




A window that contains a split bar that allows a user to display
a view of an object in different panes of a window.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a split window when it is useful for a user to display a
 view of an object in different panes of a window.




Guidelines


Fnd Allow a user to change the size of a pane by selecting the Split
choice or by directly manipulating a split bar.


Rec To split a window horizontally, provide a split box at the top
 of the topmost vertical scroll bar.


Rec To split a window vertically, provide a split box on the left of
 the leftmost horizontal scroll bar.


Rec Provide access to a split bar by allowing a user to directly
 manipulate a split box.


Rec Allow a user to split a window multiple times vertically and
 horizontally. For example, use a pointing device to drag
 another split bar from the split box.


Rec Distinguish and separate the panes with horizontal or vertical
 split bars or scroll bars.


Rec Display the cursor only in the active pane.


Rec When an object is changed in one pane, immediately update the
 view of the object in other panes that display the same part of
 that object.


Rec Provide a horizontal scroll bar or vertical scroll bar, or both,
 for each pane.


Rec Do not move the cursor when a user splits a window. For
 example, when the cursor is on an object and the window is
 split, the panes display the part of the object that was
 displayed before the window was split. The cursor's location in
 the window does not change as a result of the split.


Rec Provide coordinated scrolling of related panes. For example,
 allow a user to scroll a single pane and have all other panes
 scroll with the first pane.


Rec Allow a user to switch input focus between active panes by
 pressing F6.


Rec Allow a user to switch input focus between active panes by
 pressing the mouse selection button.




Essential Related Topics


° "Split (Choice)" in topic 2.2.114




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Input Focus" in topic 2.2.52

2.2.116 Status Area (Cue)




A part of a window where information appears that shows the
state of an object or the state of a particular view of an
object.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a status area for the contents view of a container.


Rec Provide a status area for each window in which it is useful to
 display information about the current state of an object or view
 displayed in the window.




Guidelines


Rec If you provide a status area, place it below the title bar and
 below the menu bar, if a menu bar is provided, and above the
 rest of the window. For example, place a status area below the
 menu bar and above column headings in a window.


Rec If you provide a status area, do not scroll the status area when
 the window's contents are scrolled.


Rec Use a separator to separate the status area from the rest of the
 window. For example, use a gray line to separate the status
 area from the rest of the window.


Rec Update information in the status area to reflect the current
 state of the window or the current position of the cursor.


Rec If a window provides a selection type other than single
 selection, indicate in the window's status area the number of
 items currently selected. For example, place in the status area
 text saying, "2 cars selected."


Rec If only some objects are displayed in a window, indicate in that
 window's status area the number of objects to be displayed in
 proportion to the total number of objects. For example, place
 in a status area text that says "3 of 10 cars included."


Rec If only some objects are displayed in a window, indicate in that
 window's status area what criteria the objects met in order to
 be displayed in the window. For example, place in a status area
 text that says "Displaying documents created between 10/29/90
 and 2/1/91" or if a view of an object has been sorted, indicate
 in a status area the criteria used for sorting.


Rec Provide only one status area in a window.


Rec If a user reduces the width of a window, compress the status
 area, if possible; otherwise, clip the status area.


Rec Make the status area the same width as the window.


Rec Make the status area no taller than necessary to accommodate
 brief, but meaningful, information. For example, when using
 text, accommodate only one line of text.


Fnd If you provide a status area, allow a user to turn the display
 of the status area on or off. For example, provide a settings
 choice in the View pull-down menu or on a page in a settings
 notebook that allows a user to turn the display of the status
 area on or off.




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50


° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129

2.2.117 System Menu




A pull-down menu, from the system menu symbol on the title bar
of a window, that contains choices that affect the window and
other operating-environment-specific functions.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a system menu for each window.




Guidelines


Fnd Place the system-menu symbol in the leftmost corner of the title
 bar.


Fnd Display the system menu when the user selects the system-menu
 symbol.


Fnd If any of the following choices are included in the system menu,
 place them in the following relative order:


° Restore
° Move
° Size
° Minimize or Hide
° Maximize
° --Separator--
° Close
° --Separator--
° Window list
° Split


Fnd Assign Shift+Esc as the System-menu key.


Fnd Assign spacebar as mnemonic for the system menu.




Essential Related Topics


° "Close (Choice)" in topic 2.2.13


° "Maximize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.58


° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59


° "Minimize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.62


° "Move (Choice)" in topic 2.2.65


° "Restore (Choice)" in topic 2.2.92


° "Size (Choice)" in topic 2.2.109


° "Split (Choice)" in topic 2.2.114


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128


° "Window List (Choice in System Menu)" in topic 2.2.131

2.2.118 Target Emphasis (Cue)




A visible cue that indicates that an object can act as a
receiver of the source object in a direct-manipulation
operation.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Display target emphasis during a direct manipulation operation
 when the hot spot of the pointer is over an object that supports
 direct manipulation.




Guidelines


Rec When a target object is an icon, display target emphasis as a
 solid thin line around the icon image.


Rec When a target object is an icon or small icon in the title bar
 of a window, do not display target emphasis on other icons of
 the object. For example, during a direct-manipulation
 operation, if multiple views of an object are displayed in
 separate windows, display target emphasis only on the small icon
 in the title bar of the window over which the icon is currently
 positioned. Do not display target emphasis on the small icon in
 the title bars of the other windows displaying views of that
 object.


Rec When a target object is a window containing a view of a
 container, display target emphasis as a solid thin line around
 the inside of the window adjacent to the border.


Rec When items in a window are maintained in an order, use a line
 between the items to indicate that an object being directly
 manipulated will be inserted between those items. The line
 indicates that the object will be added after the object that
 precedes the line and prior to the object following the line.


Rec Make target emphasis visible in addition to any other forms of
 emphasis that are currently visible on an object. For example,
 display target emphasis and selected-state emphasis on a
 selected object that is the target of a direct-manipulation
 operation.




Essential Related Topics


° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29

2.2.119 Text Entry




Techniques that a user employs for typing, selecting, and
manipulating text.











Guidelines


Fnd Provide insert and replace modes for all text entry. Allow a
 user to switch between these modes by pressing the Insert key.


Rec Allow a user to perform data-transfer operations on text by
 using direct manipulation. For example, allow a user to drag
 selected text from one position in a document to another, or
 from one window containing an entry field to a different window
 containing an entry field.


Rec Allow a user to perform data-transfer operations on text. For
 example, allow a user to transfer text using the clipboard.


Rec For each window that and allows text entry, provide a Delete
choice.


Fnd If a user moves or copies text to a target that is selected
 text, replace the selected text in the target object with the
 text from the source object.


Rec When text is selected and the cursor is in the selected text or
 adjacent to it, replace the selected text with the text typed by
 a user.


Fnd If the cursor is in text and no text is selected, remove one
 character to the left of the cursor when a user presses the
 Backspace key, compressing the space occupied by that character.


Fnd If the cursor is in text and nothing is selected, remove one
 character to the right of the cursor when a user presses the
 Delete key.


Fnd When text is selected and the cursor is in the selected text or
 adjacent to it, remove the selected text when a user presses
 either the Backspace or the Delete key.


Fnd See Figure 202 for selection techniques for text.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 202. Extended Selection Techniques Used for Text |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Selection technique | What to do |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Point selection | Position the text cursor and |
 | | remove selected-state emphasis |
 | | from all other text |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Point-to-endpoint selection | Select all contiguous text in the |
 | (Range) | range and remove selected-state |
 | | emphasis from all other text |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Point-to-endpoint selection (Area) | Select only the text in the |
 | | marquee box and remove |
 | | selected-state emphasis from all |
 | | other text |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Random-point selection | Not applicable |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|


Rec Allow a user to double-click the mouse selection button in text,
 to select the entire word over which the pointer is positioned.


Rec Provide a margin that allows a user to click the mouse selection
 button to select an entire line of text and allows a user to
 double-click the mouse selection button to select an entire
 paragraph of text.


Rec When a user performs a direct-manipulation operation on text by
 dragging it, make the default for the direct-manipulation
 operation a move, unless the text can only be copied.




Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21


° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23


° "Selection Types and Techniques" in topic 2.2.103


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Copy (Choice)" in topic 2.2.19


° "Cut (Choice)" in topic 2.2.22


° "Delete (Choice)" in topic 2.2.25


° "Direct Manipulation" in topic 2.2.29


° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32


° "Entry Field (Control)" in topic 2.2.33


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Mouse" in topic 2.2.64


° "Paste (Choice)" in topic 2.2.74


° "Window Navigation" in topic 2.2.133

2.2.120 Tool Palette




One or more controls in a window, separate window, or menu that
provide a set of graphical choices that represent tools. The
tools redefine the set of operations possible with a pointing
device.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a tool palette when there are different modes of the
 pointer that the user can select. For example, provide a
 rectangle choice and a circle choice to allow the user to choose
 between drawing rectangles and circles in a graphics editor.




Guidelines


Fnd Allow a user to select only one choice at a time from a tool
 palette.


Fnd When the user selects a choice from the tool palette, change or
 augment the pointer to indicate the operation a user can perform
 with the pointing device. For example, display a rectangular
 pointer when a user selects a rectangle-drawing choice from a
 tool palette.


Fnd When the pointer is moved to a position that is outside the
 scope of the mode change, return the pointer to the appropriate
 pointer for the action it is over. For example, change the
 pointer to an arrow pointer when a user moves the pointer to the
 menu bar to provide access to the menu bar choices.


Rec When choices are provided on a tool palette, also provide access
 to those choices from a menu. For example, provide access to
 the choices on a tool palette from a Tools menu bar choice.


Rec If you provide a tool palette as a menu, as well as in a window,
 allow a user to turn the display of the tool palette on or off.
 For example, provide a choice in the Options menu or on a page
 in a settings notebook that allows a user to turn the display of
 the tool palette in the window on or off.


Fnd If a user selects a choice from a tool palette and the pointer
 will not be restored to the arrow pointer after the operation
 has been completed, provide an arrow-pointer choice on the tool
 palette.


Rec When displayed in its own window, display a tool palette in a
 secondary window.


Rec If there are settings that would be used with a tool palette and
 the tool palette is displayed in a secondary window, place those
 settings in the secondary window with the tool palette.


Rec Use a value set to display a tool palette.




Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Pointer" in topic 2.2.75


° "Value Set (Control)" in topic 2.2.125




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Options Menu" in topic 2.2.73

2.2.121 Tutorial (Choice)




An action choice that provides access to online educational
information.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide online educational information for tasks and objects for
 users who require information that is not provided in general
 help or contextual help, or who require information that is
 structured in a different manner than is provided elsewhere.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide a tutorial, place the Tutorial choice in the Help
menu.


Fnd Assign "T" as the mnemonic for the Tutorial choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Help Index (Choice)" in topic 2.2.44

2.2.122 Unavailable-State Emphasis (Cue)




A visible cue that indicates that a choice cannot be selected.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Display unavailable-state emphasis on choices that represent
 operations that cannot be selected in the current context.




Guidelines


Fnd Display unavailable-state emphasis by dimming the choice that
 cannot be selected. For example, indicate a menu choice that is
 unavailable by changing every other pel to the background color.


Rec When the contents of a list are variable from one presentation
 to the next, such as a list of documents, avoid displaying them
 with unavailable-state emphasis; instead, do not include
 choices in the list that are unavailable.


Rec If a user attempts to select a choice that is currently
 displayed with unavailable-state emphasis, indicate in the
 information area that the choice cannot be selected and that
 requesting help will explain why it is unavailable.


Fnd Provide audible feedback when a user attempts to select a choice
 that is displayed with unavailable-state emphasis.


Fnd If a choice is never available to a particular user, do not
 display the choice rather than displaying it with
 unavailable-state emphasis.




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Choice" in topic 2.2.10

2.2.123 Undo and Redo (Choice)




The Undo choice is an action choice that reverses the effect of
 the last applied operation on an object, returning the object to
 the state it was in before the operation was applied. The Redo
choice is an action choice that reverses the effect of the last
applied undo action.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide the Undo and Redo choices for each object.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Undo and Redo choices and you provide the
 Edit menu, place the Undo and Redo choices in the Edit menu.


Rec If you provide the Undo and Redo choices for an object, place
 them in the pop-up menu for that object.


Rec If you provide the Undo choice, display it with
 unavailable-state emphasis if the user cannot undo the last
 operation.


Rec After a user selects the Undo choice, display it with
 unavailable-state emphasis until the user performs another
 operation that can be undone.


Rec When a user selects the Redo choice, Undo becomes available and
 Redo becomes unavailable.


Rec Dynamically append to the name of the Undo choice to indicate
 the action that will be undone. For example, change Undo to
 Undo typing or Undo delete.


Rec Dynamically append to the name of the Redo choice to indicate
 the action that will be undone.


Rec When undoing an action, return all objects affected by the
 action to the state they were in before the action occurred.


Fnd Assign "U" as the mnemonic for the Undo choice.


Fnd Assign "R" as the mnemonic for the Redo choice.


Fnd Assign Alt+Backspace as the shortcut key combination for the
 Undo choice.


Fnd Assign Shift+Alt+Backspace as the shortcut key combination for
 the Redo choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Edit Menu" in topic 2.2.32




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Clear (Choice)" in topic 2.2.11


° "Data Transfer" in topic 2.2.23


° "Delete (Choice)" in topic 2.2.25


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54

2.2.124 Using Help (Choice)




An action choice that displays a window containing information
about how to use the help function.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide the Using help choice in each Help menu.




Guidelines


Fnd When a user selects the Using help choice, display a window
 containing information about how to use the help function.


Fnd Assign "U" as the mnemonic for the Using help choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Help Menu" in topic 2.2.45

2.2.125 Value Set (Control)




A control that allows a user to select one choice from a group
of mutually exclusive choices. A value set is used primarily
for graphical choices.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a value set for graphical choices that are mutually
 exclusive.


Rec Use a value set for short textual choices that are mutually
 exclusive; otherwise, use a field of radio buttons.




Guidelines


Fnd Display only settings choices in a value set. Do not display
 action choices or routing choices in a value set.


Fnd Use at least two choices when a value set is used.


Rec If a value set choice is currently unavailable, display it with
 unavailable-state emphasis.


Rec When a value set represents a setting shared by more than one
 selected object:


° Do not display selected emphasis on any of the value set
choices if some, but not all of the objects, have the same
setting selected.
° Display selected emphasis on one of the value set choices if
all of the objects have the same setting selected.


Rec Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a label
 for a value set choice unless the label contains an
 abbreviation, acronym, or proper noun that should be
 capitalized.


Rec Assign a mnemonic to each choice in a value set when all choices
 are textual.


Rec If a value set choice has a mnemonic assigned to it, provide
 access to the mnemonic by allowing a user to press the Alt key
 and that mnemonic.


Fnd Assign one of the choices in a value set as the default choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63


° "Radio Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.88


° "Unavailable-State Emphasis (Cue)" in topic 2.2.122




Supplemental Related Topics




° "Spin Button (Control)" in topic 2.2.113


° "Tool Palette" in topic 2.2.120

2.2.126 View Menu




A pull-down menu from the View choice on a menu bar that
 contains choices that affect the way an object is presented, for
 example, alternative formats, how much information is presented,
 what order it is presented in, and other related viewing
 choices.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a View choice on the menu bar of each window that
 provides a menu bar when more than one view is available for an
 object or any of the following choices are provided: Sort,
Include, Refresh or Refresh now.




Guidelines


Fnd When any of the following choices are provided place them in the
 following relative order in the View menu:


° view types - for example: icons, details, and settings
° --Separator--
° Sort
° Include
° --Separator--
° Refresh ÿ On/Off
° Refresh now


Rec If you provide additional product-specific choices in the View
menu, group them with related choices in the View menu.


Fnd Indicate the current view of an object by displaying that view's
 choice with unavailable-state emphasis.


Rec If a settings view is displayed as a notebook that has more tabs
 than can be displayed at one time, provide a cascaded menu from
 the Settings choice that provides direct access to frequently
 used tabbed-divider pages in the notebook.


Fnd Do not open a new window as a result of selecting a view;
 instead, display the new view of the object in the current
 window.


Fnd Assign "V" as the mnemonic for the View choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Include (Choice)" in topic 2.2.49


° "Refresh and Refresh Now (Choice)" in topic 2.2.91


° "Sort (Choice)" in topic 2.2.111




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Information Area" in topic 2.2.50

2.2.127 Warning Message




A message that indicates that an undesirable condition could
occur but the user can allow the process to continue.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Display a warning message to indicate that an undesirable
 situation could occur but that the user can allow the process to
 continue.




Guidelines


Rec Provide controls in the message window that allow a user to
 correct the situation that caused the message to appear. For
 example, provide an entry field in which a user can correct a
 value.


Fnd Provide a push button that allows a user to continue the request
 as originally requested. For example, in a message that warns a
 user copying multiple files that the diskette is 95% full, the
 user can continue with a push button labeled Continue.


Rec If your product can determine that the situation that caused the
 message to appear is changed so that it can continue,
 immediately remove the message.


Rec Provide a push button that allows a user to withdraw the
 request. For example, provide a push button labeled Cancel.


Rec When a user withdraws a request, leave the objects in a form
 that is meaningful to a user. For example, when a user requests
 to copy a group of objects, and an error occurs that causes the
 user to withdraw the request while the fifth object is being
 copied, leave the first four copied objects where they are and
 remove the partially copied fifth object.


Rec In the message text, suggest possible actions that a user can
 take to correct the situation that caused the message to appear.


Fnd Display an exclamation mark symbol in each warning message.


Fnd Provide an audible cue when a warning message is displayed.


Essential Related Topics


° "Action Message" in topic 2.2.3


° "Information Message" in topic 2.2.51


° "Message" in topic 2.2.61


° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Audible Feedback" in topic 2.2.6

2.2.128 Window




An area on the display screen used to present a view of an
object or to conduct a dialog with a user. The two types of
windows are primary windows and secondary windows. Window are
used to present objects, action options, and messages.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Use a window to display a view of an object or to conduct a
 dialog with a user.




Guidelines


Fnd Provide a border, window title, and system-menu symbol for each
 window.


Rec Provide a small version of the object's icon in the title bar
 when a window displays a view of that object.


Rec Close a window when:


° A user selects the Close choice from the system menu or from
 a push button labeled Close.


° A user selects the Cancel choice from a push button.


° A user selects a choice that completes the action
represented in the window.


° The window has no further relevance. For example, close a
progress-indicator window when the action the user has
requested is complete.


Rec Allow a user to change the size and position of all windows.


Rec When a user closes , minimizes, or hides a window, save its
 current state, including its size and position, for use when the
 window is restored.


Rec When a user opens a window from an object to a particular view
 or restores a minimized or hidden window, restore the window and
 any dependent windows to their previous state, regardless of the
 amount of time that has elapsed since a user last opened or
 restored the window, and regardless of whether the user's system
 has been turned off and on again.


Rec If a user is opening or restoring a window on a screen of a
 different size than the screen on which the window was last
 viewed, and the window, when opened or restored, would otherwise
 be positioned outside the bounds of the user's current screen,
 ensure that at least part of the window's title bar is visible
 on the user's screen.


Rec When a user opens a window that has no previous state
 information:


° Place and size the window so that it is completely visible
within the workplace.


° Make the window large enough for a user to perform useful
work, but less than the full size of the user's workplace.


° Place the window so that it will draw a user's attention
without impeding the user's work. For example, place a help
window next to the window from which it was requested, not
on top of that window.


° Place the window near where the user's attention was most
likely focused when the user's request caused the window to
appear. For example, place the window near the pointer or
near the cursor.


Rec When a user opens a window but switches input focus to another
 window before the requested window is displayed, do not display
 the previously requested window on top of the window that
 currently has focus.


Rec When a user opens another window from an object that already has
 open windows, do not completely cover the other windows
 associated with that object.


Rec If a user selects and opens more than one object, display each
 object in a separate window. Open the windows in the order that
 the objects were selected, so that the window for the object
 that was selected last has input focus and is not obscured by
 any other window.


Rec See Figure 203 to determine the components to provide in a
 window based on the usage of that window.


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 203. Recommended Window Component Usage |
|_____________ _______ ______ ______________ ______ _______ ______ ______|
| Window | System| Small| Title | Minim|zMaximi|eMenu | Sizin|
| Usage | Menu | Icon | | Push | and | Bar | Borde|
| | | in | | Butto| Restor| | |
 | | | Title| | | Push | | |
 | | | Bar | | | Button| | |
 |_____________|_______|______|______________|______|_______|______|______|
 | Object | Yes | Yes | object name | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
 | | | | - view | | | | |
 | | | | name:number | | | | |
 |_____________|_______|______|______________|______|_______|______|______|
 | Messages | Yes | No | object name | No | Yes | No | Yes |
 | | | | - action or | | | | |
 | | | | situation | | | | |
 |_____________|_______|______|______________|______|_______|______|______|
 | Progress | Yes | No | object name | No | Yes | No | Yes |
 | Indicator | | | - process | | | | |
 | | | | Progress | | | | |
 |_____________|_______|______|______________|______|_______|______|______|
 | Help | Yes | No | object/action|fNold | Yes | Yes | Yes |
 | | | | - Help | | | | |
 |_____________|_______|______|______________|______|_______|______|______|
 | Action | Yes | No | object name | No | Yes | No | Yes |
 | | | | - action | | | | |
 |_____________|_______|______|______________|______|_______|______|______|
 | Application-|rYested| Yes | Application | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
 | window | | | name - | | | | |
 | | | | object name | | | | |
 |_____________|_______|______|______________|______|_______|______|______|






Supplemental Related Topics


° "Active Window" in topic 2.2.5


° "Inactive Window" in topic 2.2.48


° "Input Focus" in topic 2.2.52


° "Primary Window" in topic 2.2.81


° "Secondary Window" in topic 2.2.99


° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117


° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129


° "Window Navigation" in topic 2.2.133


° "Window Title" in topic 2.2.135

2.2.129 Window Layout




The guidelines for the placement of controls in a window.


Guidelines


Rec Design the initial size and layout of an action window so that a
 user will not typically need to scroll the window. If the
 initial size of an action window is not large enough to display
 all of the controls, place less frequently used controls out of
 view.


Rec If more information is contained in a view than is visible in
 the initial size and layout of a window, ensure that the break
 between visible and hidden information is at a logical point.
 For example, avoid clipping an entry field so that only a
 portion of it is visible.


Rec Within a column of controls, left-align the edges of the
 controls to the right of the longest field prompt.


Rec If the contents of a window can be scaled when the window is
 sized, provide a user option to specify whether to scale or clip
 the contents.


Fnd Place push buttons that affect the entire window horizontally at
 the bottom of the window and justified from the left edge.


Rec If a window that can be scrolled vertically contains push
 buttons that affect the entire window, scroll the area above the
 push buttons, keeping the push buttons visible.


Rec Avoid placing push buttons in more than two rows.


Rec If the action indicated by the label on a push button adjusts or
 is associated with a component within the same window as the
 push button, place the push button near that component. For
 example, if the function of a push button is to restore the
 initial value in an entry field, place that push button beside
 the entry field that it affects.


Rec Avoid using a push button to change the size of a window;
 instead, allow a user to change the size of the window using the
 size borders and the maximize push button or Maximize choice.
 For example, do not provide a push button labeled More>> to
 allow a user to enlarge a window.


Rec Use a notebook to organize groups of controls when they will not
 fit in a single window. Avoid placing related controls in
 separate windows connected by routing choices on push buttons.


Rec In high-volume data-entry windows, consider using right-aligned
 edges of field prompts next to left-aligned entry fields so that
 a narrow vertical column of space is left between the field
 prompts and their associated entry fields to allow a user to
 quickly scan the choices in the window.


Rec Allow a user to adjust the size of each column in a window,
 where appropriate. For example, provide column borders that a
 user can directly manipulate to change the size of columns.


Fnd If a user cannot adjust the width of a column or scroll the
 column, make the column at least as wide as the widest item in
 the column or as wide as the column's heading, whichever is
 wider.


Rec If a user can adjust the width of a column, make the initial
 width of the column wide enough to display choices of average
 width.


Rec If the order of columns can be changed, allow a user to directly
 manipulate each column. For example, allow a user to drag
 column headings to change the order of columns.


Rec If you provide an information area, place it at the bottom of a
 window.


Rec If you provide an information area and there is a horizontal
 scroll bar in the window, place the information area below the
 scroll bar and above the window border.


Rec If you provide a status area, place it below the title bar and
 below the menu bar, if a menu bar is provided, and above the
 rest of the window. For example, place a status area below the
 menu bar and above column headings in a window.




Essential Related Topics


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128


Supplemental Related Topics


° "Column Heading" in topic 2.2.14


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Field Prompt" in topic 2.2.35


° "Group Box" in topic 2.2.42


° "Group Heading" in topic 2.2.43


° "Notebook (Control)" in topic 2.2.68

2.2.130 Window List




A window that contains a list of the windows associated with the
window from which the Window list choice was selected.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Display a window list window to show a user the organization of
 the windows, and to provide access to functions available for
 those windows.




Guidelines


Rec Display the window list window as a secondary window that is
 dependent on the window from which the Window list choice was
 selected.


Fnd When the Window list choice in the Windows menu is selected,
 display a list of the windows associated with the window from
 which the Window list choice was selected.


Rec Indicate the state of each window listed in the window list
 window. For example, indicate which windows are minimized and
 maximized.


Rec Organize the names of the windows displayed in the window list
 window in a manner that helps users understand the relationships
 between windows. For example, indent names of secondary windows
 under their associated primary windows.


Rec Allow a user to condense or expand the number of window names
 that are displayed in the window list window. For example,
 provide a choice that displays only primary windows when the
 window list window is organized in a tree structure.


Rec Assign the default action for the window list window to switch
 to the selected window. For example, provide a default push
 button labeled Show that closes the window list and makes the
 selected window the active window.


Rec Provide access to common window functions such as Minimize and
 Close for the windows in the list.


Rec Support extended selection for the list of windows in the window
 list action window.




Essential Related Topics


° "Active Window" in topic 2.2.5


° "Window List (Choice in System Menu)" in topic 2.2.131


° "Window List (Choice in Windows Menu)" in topic 2.2.132


° "Windows Menu" in topic 2.2.134




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Close (Choice)" in topic 2.2.13


° "Minimize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.62

2.2.131 Window List (Choice in System Menu)




An action choice that displays a window containing a list of all
of the active applications in an application-oriented
environment or a list of all open windows in an object-oriented
environment.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a Window list choice for each window.




Guidelines


Fnd Place a Window list choice in the system menu.


Rec When a user selects the Window list choice, use the mechanism
 provided by the operating environment that displays the Window
list window.


Fnd Assign Ctrl+Esc as the shortcut key combination for the Window
list choice.


Fnd Assign "W" as the mnemonic for the Window list choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "System Menu" in topic 2.2.117


° "Window List (Choice in Windows Menu)" in topic 2.2.132




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Window List" in topic 2.2.130

2.2.132 Window List (Choice in Windows Menu)




An action choice that displays the window list window that
allows a user to manage associated windows.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a Window list choice to provide access to the window
 list window.




Guidelines


Fnd If you provide the Window list choice that allows a user to
 manage associated windows, and you provide a Windows menu, place
 the Window list choice in the Windows menu.


Fnd When a user selects the Window list choice, display the window
 list action window.


Fnd Assign "W" as the mnemonic for the Window list choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Active Window" in topic 2.2.5


° "Window List" in topic 2.2.130


° "Window List (Choice in System Menu)" in topic 2.2.131


° "Windows Menu" in topic 2.2.134

2.2.133 Window Navigation




Guidelines for the movement of the cursor in a window and access
from a keyboard to any part of a window.


Guidelines


Rec Provide a mnemonic for each choice in a window.


Fnd When a user presses the Alt key and types the mnemonic assigned
 to a push button, select that push button.


Fnd When the cursor is positioned on a push button in a group of
 push buttons, allow a user to select a push button in that group
 by pressing the mnemonic character, if provided, assigned to
 that push button.


Fnd When a user presses a key that moves the cursor to a field in
 which one of the choices is selected, place the cursor on the
 selected choice; otherwise, place the cursor on the first
 choice or on the default choice.


Fnd When a user presses the Tab or Backtab key that moves the cursor
 to a group of push buttons, place the cursor on the default push
 button in that group.


Fnd When the cursor is on a push button and a user presses the Tab
 or Backtab key, move the cursor to the next field in the window,
 not to another push button in the same field.


Rec When a user presses the Tab key, move the cursor between fields,
 from left-to-right and top-to-bottom in the window. When the
 cursor is on the bottom-rightmost field in the window, and a
 user presses the Tab key, move the cursor to the top-leftmost
 field in the window.


Rec When a user presses the Backtab key (Shift+Tab), move the cursor
 between fields, from right-to-left, and bottom-to-top in the
 window. When the cursor is on the top-leftmost field in the
 window, and a user presses the Backtab key, move the cursor to
 the bottom-rightmost field in the window.


Fnd When the cursor is moved from a field of push buttons, reset the
 default push button to be the same as it was before the cursor
 entered that field of push buttons. For example, if a user
 moved the cursor off of the OK push button (the default) to the
 Help push button, then moved the cursor to a field of radio
 buttons, the default push button should again be the OK push
 button.


Rec Allow a user to interact with a field that is displayed with
 unavailable-state emphasis because of a setting elsewhere in
 that window. When a user changes a setting that makes that
 field available, apply the contents of the field.


Essential Related Topics


° "Cursor" in topic 2.2.21


° "Mnemonic" in topic 2.2.63


° "Window Layout" in topic 2.2.129




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Control" in topic 2.2.18


° "Keyboard" in topic 2.2.54


° "Push Button (Predefined)" in topic 2.2.87


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.134 Windows Menu




A pull-down menu from the Windows choice on a menu bar that
 contains choices that allow a user to access the window list and
 other product-specific window-related choices.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a Windows choice on the menu bar in each window that
 provides a menu bar and has secondary windows that are used to
 display objects or other associated primary windows.




Guidelines


Rec Provide choices in the Windows menu that provide access to other
 associated windows without using the window list action window.
 For example, provide a Close all choice or a list of the last
 three windows that were active.


Fnd Assign "W" as the mnemonic for the Windows menu choice.




Essential Related Topics


° "Menu (Control)" in topic 2.2.59


° "Window List" in topic 2.2.130


° "Window List (Choice in System Menu)" in topic 2.2.131


° "Window List (Choice in Windows Menu)" in topic 2.2.132

2.2.135 Window Title




The area in a title bar that identifies the window.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Fnd Provide a title for every window.




Guidelines


Rec Refer to Figure 204 to determine how to title a window:


 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 204. Recommended Window Titling Formats |
|____________________________________ ___________________________________|
| Window usage | Window title format |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Display view of an object | Object name - view name:n; for |
 | | example, MyDoc - Settings:3 |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Note: where n is a number when multiple views of an object are |
 | provided |
 |____________________________________ ___________________________________|
 | Message | Object name - action or |
 | | situation; for example, Drive A: |
 | | - Format Diskette |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Progress indicator displayed in | Object name - action Progress; |
 | separate window | for example, MyDoc - Print |
 | | Progress |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Help | Object name, Action, or Field - |
 | | xyz Help abc; for example, Font |
 | | List - Help |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Note: where xyz and abc are optional related identifying information |
 |____________________________________ ___________________________________|
 | Action window | Object name - action; for |
 | | example, MyDoc - Find |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|
 | Application-oriented window | Application name - file name; |
 | | for example, Editor - MyDoc |
 |____________________________________|___________________________________|


Fnd If more than one view of the same type has been opened from an
 object, append a colon (:) and unique number to the title of
 each of those windows. For example, if two icons views are
 opened on an object, label them "MyObject - Icons:1" and
 "MyObject - Icons:2."


Rec When a user opens more than one view of the same type on an
 object, begin numbering the window with "1" and continuing
 numbering with unique numbers. For the original window, change
 its title from "Object - View" to "Object - View:1" and label
 the next window displaying that same view "Object - View:2."


Rec Capitalize the first letter of the first and last words and the
 first letter of all other words except articles, coordinating
 conjunctions, prepositions, and the "to" in infinitives.


Rec If a user sizes a window so that all of the title cannot be
 displayed in the title bar, clip the window title from the
 right.


Rec Allow a user to directly edit a window title in the title bar.


Fnd If you allow a user to directly edit a window title, allow the
 user to edit the window title by clicking on the text with the
 mouse.




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128

2.2.136 Work Area (Object)




A container used to group windows and objects to perform a task.











FND guidelines are required; REC guidelines are recommended.


When to Use


Rec Provide a work area to allow a user to group objects to perform
 a specific task or set of related tasks.




Guidelines


Fnd When a user closes or minimizes a work area, remove any window
 that was opened from an object in that work area.


Fnd If a window was open on an object in a work area when the work
 area was closed or minimized, restore that window when the work
 area is opened or restored.


Fnd When a user closes or minimizes a work area, save the position
 and size of each open window associated with that work area.


Rec If you provide work areas, provide a settings choice that allows
 a user to change between a work area and a folder.


Rec If a user changes a work area into a folder, immediately change
 its icon to that of a folder.


Rec Allow a user to place any object into a work area.


Essential Related Topics


° "Container (Control)" in topic 2.2.16


° "Folder (Object)" in topic 2.2.40




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Close (Choice)" in topic 2.2.13


° "Minimize (Choice)" in topic 2.2.62


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128


° "Workplace" in topic 2.2.137

2.2.137 Workplace




A container provided by the operating environment where a user
performs all tasks and where all user objects reside. The
screen represents the workplace.











Guidelines


Fnd Place all windows on the workplace.


Fnd Represent all objects on the workplace as icons.




Essential Related Topics


° "Object" in topic 2.2.69


° "Window" in topic 2.2.128




Supplemental Related Topics


° "Icon" in topic 2.2.47

A.0 Appendix A. Applying CUA Concepts to Touch Input and Multimedia User Interfaces


The following sections describe two areas of advanced development for CUA
user interfaces: touch input and multimedia. Although the CUA guidelines
do not yet provide detailed information about how to design touch and
multimedia components of a product's interface, general information is
provided here for designers and developers who want to add these features
to their products.




Subtopics:

A.1 Design Considerations for Touch Input




The CUA user interface has been designed to accommodate point-and-select
interaction techniques. Although the CUA user interface is primarily
intended for use with a pointing device such as a mouse, many CUA concepts
and techniques can be incorporated in products that accept touch
input--that is, input generated when a user places a finger on a display
 screen.


The design process for products that accept touch input is the same as for
other kinds of products. However, a designer must be sure to accommodate
the input device: a user's finger. Because a finger is larger than a
cursor or pointer and can obscure objects and choices beneath it, a
designer must pay special attention to a product's interaction techniques
and visible cues to ensure that the result of a user's interaction is the
result the user intended. A designer must ensure that a user knows which
items can be selected. A designer must also ensure that a user is able to
select items easily and accurately.




Subtopics:

A.1.2 Making Selection Easy and Accurate




Several kinds of variables affect the ease and accuracy of touch input.
These include:


° User variables--for example, user experience, height, position
(sitting or standing), pointing acuity, left-handedness or
right-handedness, and finger size


° Display variables--for example, image quality, height and angle of
display screen, and physical support for the user's finger


° Product variables--for example, the number, size, and types of objects
and choices, the frequency of use of objects and choices, and the
types of interaction required.


Obviously, a software interface designer has no control over user
variables and display variables, but a designer can control product
variables to make it easy for a typical user to select items accurately.
Several techniques for improving ease and accuracy are discussed in the
following sections.




Subtopics:

A.1.2.2 Providing a Touch Pointer


A designer can provide a touch pointer, which is a smaller version of the
 arrow pointer (see "Pointer" in topic 2.2.75). A touch pointer helps a
 user be more accurate in selecting a particular item.


A designer can provide a touch pointer when items on a screen are small or
are closely spaced. A touch pointer can be displayed continuously or only
when a user's finger is in contact with the screen. In either case, a
touch pointer should be displayed only in a small area near the point
where a user's finger is in contact with a screen, and it should be placed
so that it is not obscured by the user's finger. When a user's finger
moves to a new position on the screen, the touch pointer should also move.


If an item is particularly small and is likely to be completely obscured
by a user's finger, a designer can choose to display visual highlighting
on the touch pointer (rather than on the item to be selected) when the
user touches the small item.




 




Figure 206. Touch Pointer. A touch pointer helps a user be more accurate
when selecting objects or choices that are small or are close
together.

A.1.2.1 Providing Visible Cues




By providing obvious and consistent visible cues, a designer can make sure
a user knows which items can be selected and which cannot. By giving
special consideration to the design of items that can be selected, a
designer can increase a user's accuracy in selecting items. Typically, a
designer would use visible cues to help a user identify and select items,
although audible cues can be appropriate for some products and some groups
of users.


To make an interface component more obvious to a user, a designer can
strengthen its visual representation. For example, a designer could
specify a distinctive border for each item that can be selected. A
designer can also provide special highlighting when a user touches an
object that can be selected.




 




Figure 205. Distinctive Visual Cues. A designer can accentuate some of
the visual characteristics of an object or choice to indicate
to a user that the item can be selected.

A.1.1 Deciding When Selection Occurs




When using a product that accepts touch input, a user can:


° Touch the display screen with a finger
° Lift a finger from the display screen
° Slide a finger while maintaining contact with the display screen.


Selection in a touch-input environment can occur at either the moment a
user touches the screen or the moment a user lifts a finger from the
screen.


Selection at the moment of the initial touch is the most intuitive method
for selection and requires the least amount of training for users.
However, this method of selection does not give a user the opportunity to
cancel a selection once finger contact is made. If a designer chooses
this method of selection, the designer should make the visual
representations of a product's objects and choices relatively large. A
designer should also provide mechanisms that make it easy for a user to
identify errors and correct them.


Selection at the moment a user lifts a finger from the display screen
allows a user to cancel an impending selection by sliding the finger away
from an item before lifting the finger from the display screen. If a
designer chooses this method of selection, the designer should provide
some kind of visual highlighting on each object or choice that a user
touches so that the user knows the item will be selected if the user lifts
the finger. Users might require more training before they can use this
method effectively to select objects and cancel selection.


In a variation of the second method of selection, a user touches the
screen, slides the finger until the desired item is highlighted, then
lifts the finger to select the highlighted item. This method works well
for small or closely spaced items. If a designer chooses this method of
selection, the designer should provide blank areas on the display screen
so that a user can cancel an impending selection.


Some display screens can differentiate between a light touch and a heavier
touch. For these displays a designer might specify a light touch for
sliding a finger to an item and a heavier touch for selecting an item.


A designer can combine these different methods of selection. For example,
a designer might specify that a user can select a choice on the menu bar
at the moment the user touches the choice. Then, when the corresponding
pull-down menu appears, the user could slide the finger up or down the
pull-down menu until the desired choice is highlighted. The highlighted
choice would be selected at the moment the user lifts the finger from the
screen. This method is similar to the pointing device method used for
selecting choices from menu bars and pull-down menus.

A.1.2.3 Providing Adequate Visual Targets and Detection Zones




Items that can be selected have two components:


° Visual target--the graphic or text representation of the object or
choice
° Detection zone--the area in which the touch of a user's finger is
recognized as input.


The detection zone should encompass at least the entire area occupied by
the visual target. In many cases, a designer will find it helpful to
users to provide a detection zone that extends somewhat beyond the visual
target.


The CUA guidelines do not specify a minimum size for objects or choices.
Instead, a designer should determine the appropriate size by considering a
product's users and the tasks the users will want to accomplish. Usually,
the more varied and less experienced the users, the larger a product's
visual targets and detection zones should be.

A.2 Design Considerations for Multimedia




Conventional user interfaces allow a user to work with textual information
or with textual and graphical information. A multimedia user interface
allows a user to work with more complex types of information, such as
synchronized audio and video information. In addition to text and simple
graphics, a multimedia user interface typically makes use of:


° Images, both static and moving, recorded and synthesized
° Audio, both recorded and synthesized.


The CUA environment allows the use of multimedia information. Products
with a CUA interface can include:


° Enhanced visible cues, such as animated icons
° Enhanced audible cues, such as speech or music
° Animated objects, such as charts and graphs
° Video images, such as product demonstrations
° Computer visualizations, such as images based on data gathered from
sensors.


Multimedia information can enrich and improve communication between people
and between users and their computers.


However, designing a product that uses multimedia information is more
challenging than designing a product that uses only text and graphics. To
create a product with a multimedia user interface, a designer must be well
versed in graphic design and in audio and video production, or must have
access to people skilled in these areas.




Subtopics:

A.2.1 Displaying and Manipulating Multimedia Information




A multimedia object has certain unique characteristics that affect the way
a designer should display the object in a product. A multimedia object is
typically a collection of data presented to a user in succession. To be
displayed correctly, the data in a multimedia object must be presented to
a user in the correct sequence and at the correct time. For example, an
animation sequence is presented to a user as a series of images rather
than as a single image. For the sequence to play correctly, each frame
must appear in the correct relative order, and the interval from the
appearance of one frame to the appearance of the next must be constant and
must match the interval at which the sequence was developed. Otherwise,
the motion in the sequence will seem jerky.


Multimedia objects can be combined. For example, a video object can be
combined with an audio object. To achieve the desired effect, however, a
designer must synchronize the objects. That is, a designer must link
segments of data from each object so that the two segments will be
displayed at the same point in time.


A designer can use standard components of the CUA interface, such as
windows and controls, to display a multimedia object. For example, a
product could display the waveform for an audio signal in a window. A
user could see different parts of the waveform by scrolling the contents
of the window.




 




Figure 207. Displaying a Multimedia Object. A multimedia object can be
displayed in a window. In the example above, the two windows
display the same object, but they represent different segments
of the object that correspond to different points in time. To
view or work with a particular segment of the multimedia
object, a user can scroll the window.


However, a designer should keep in mind that a scroll bar indicates the
position and quantity of the information visible in a window only in
relation to the quantity of information in the entire object being
displayed. A scroll bar does not represent an absolute position or
quantity.
Therefore, a scroll bar can be used to adjust the view of the object
displayed in the window, but it should not be used to represent or adjust
a specific quantity, such as time.


Instead, a designer should use a slider to represent a specific quantity.
For example, in a product used for video editing, a designer could use a
slider to indicate the total length (or time) of a "master tape" object.
The slider arm would indicate the specific position or point in time of a
single frame of the tape. To view the preceding (earlier) or following
(later) frames, a user could manipulate the slider arm.




 




Figure 208. Slider. A slider can be used to represent a quantitative
aspect of a multimedia object.


A designer can modify the visuals for controls when appropriate. For
example, in a product used for video recording, the push buttons could be
designed to resemble the Record, Pause, and Play buttons on an actual
video recorder.






 




Figure 209. Multimedia Control Panel. The standard CUA controls can be
used in multimedia products. The visuals for the controls can
be modified as needed.


A designer could use a notebook to display the settings choices for audio
or video equipment. Each section of the notebook could represent a
different piece of equipment.




 




Figure 210. Notebook for Multimedia Objects. A notebook can be used to
display settings choices for multimedia objects.


When deciding which controls and which visuals to use to display a
multimedia object, a designer should keep a user's conceptual model in
mind and, when possible, should mimic real-world objects that the user is
accustomed to.

A.2.2 Accommodating Different System Configurations




A multimedia user interface can place considerable demands on a user's
computer system. Factors that affect a user's ability to manage and
manipulate multimedia objects include:


° Size, color, and resolution of a user's display screen


° Adapter cards and peripheral hardware, such as video or audio players
or recorders


° System memory and storage capacity.


A designer should be aware that some users of a product might not have all
the hardware necessary for an ideal installation. To accommodate a wider
range of users, a product should include options for users with various
system configurations. For example, a product developed on an elaborate
system might contain an animation sequence that makes use of the system's
high resolution and many colors. The product should also include a
mechanism that allows a user to view the sequence on a less elaborate
system that has lower resolution and fewer colors.

B.0 Appendix B. Design Considerations for the Use of Color


Color serves as a visible cue that can draw a user's attention to--or away
from--a particular component of an interface. By using color, a designer
can improve the appearance and effectiveness of a product's user
interface. However, a designer should use color with care. If the colors
in an interface are poorly chosen and poorly applied, the usability of the
interface can be diminished.


Because some users might not have access to a color display screen, and
because some users might have varying degrees of color blindness, a
designer shouldn't rely solely on color to distinguish one interface
component from another. Color should be used in combination with other
cues, such as tonal value (contrast), size, shape, placement, and overlap.
In fact, designers should design the interface in black and white first
and should add color only after achieving a satisfactory design in black
and white.


In general, a designer should use fewer colors and should apply them
sparingly. Certain color combinations should be avoided. A red image on
a green background, or a green image on a red background, can be difficult
to see, particularly if the colors are of the same intensity. A designer
should be aware that many users have red-green color blindness. Also,
because saturated red and blue lines can appear to have depth, a designer
should use them with care. Lighting conditions can also affect the
visibility of colors. Before specifying colors for a user interface, a
designer should consult someone skilled in the application of color to
user interfaces.


Because users seek meaning in colors, a designer should take special care
to learn what a particular color represents to a product's intended users.
For example, in many Western cultures the color red means "stop" or
"unsatisfactory conditions," the color yellow means "caution," and the
color green means "go" or "satisfactory conditions." If a designer is
certain that the users of a product will ascribe those meanings to those
colors, the designer can use the colors to convey those meanings.
However, if a product will be used by an international audience, a
designer should not assume that red, yellow, and green will mean the same
things to all users.


A designer should use the same color to convey the same meaning within a
particular scope. For example, if the border of an entry field in a
notebook changes to red when a user places an inappropriate value in the
entry field, the border colors of other controls in the notebook should
also change to red when a user supplies an inappropriate value. A
designer could use red to convey a different meaning in the same product
as long as the red appears in a different scope. For example, if a
designer uses a slider to represent temperature, the designer could make
one end of the slider red and the other blue to represent hot and cold,
respectively.


Finally, whenever a designer includes color in a user interface, the
designer should also provide mechanisms that allow a user to change the
color. A designer should also provide a default set of colors that a user
can revert to after changing to other colors.

C.0 Appendix C. Comparison of 1989 and 1991 Rules and Recommendations


This section provides information for designers migrating products from
the graphical model defined in 1989 to the application-oriented and
 object-oriented models described in this guide. Not every rule is
 discussed in this section. Its intent is to point out some particularly
 important rules that have been changed and to make the reader aware of the
 new or changed topics. For specific implementation rules and guidelines
 refer to the appropriate component in Chapter 8, Common User Access
Interface Components beginning on page 2.2.


 _______________________ ________________________ _______________________ 
| Section | CUA Guidelines -- 1989 | CUA Guidelines -- |
 | | | 1991 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Accelerator | Accelerator term used. | Terminology change -- |
 | | | called a Shortcut |
 | | | key. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Action bar | Action bar term used. | Terminology change -- |
 | | | called a Menu bar. |
 | | | |
 | | | Used if more than six |
 | | Used if more than one | actions available, or |
 | | action available. | when any of the |
 | | | predefined menu bar |
 | | | actions are |
 | | | available. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Action message | Stop-sign symbol | Question mark or |
 | | always used. | stop-sign symbol may |
 | | | be used. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Audible feedback | Beep recommended. | Recommend using |
 | | | available audio |
 | | | capabilities as |
 | | | feedback. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Column heading | Alignment of columns | Alignment of columns |
 | | and headings not | and headings are |
 | | addressed. | defined based on |
 | | | length. |
 | | Use of separators not | |
 | | addressed. | Recommend separators |
 | | | between columns and |
 | | Required headings not | headings. |
 | | addressed. | |
 | | | Column headings not |
 | | | required if there is |
 | | | only one column. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Combination box | Default choices not | Recommend displaying |
 | | addressed. | a default choice. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Container | Addressed at a | A new control. An |
 | | direction level only. | object used to hold |
 | | | other objects. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Contents of menus | May contain action, | May contain action or |
 | | routing, or settings | routing choices. |
 | | (properties) choices. | Encourages using a |
 | | | notebook control for |
 | | | settings choices. |
 | | | Short Menus and Full |
 | | Short menus and Full | Menus -- the contents |
 | | menus: Not addressed. | and techniques are |
 | | | defined. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Contextual help | Contextual help for | Defined for |
 | | direct-manipulation | direct-manipulation |
 | | tasks not addressed. | tasks. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Delete folder | Not addressed. | A container used to |
 | | | remove objects from |
 | | | the operating |
 | | | environment. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Dialog box | Dialog boxes used to | Secondary windows |
 | | continue users | used to continue |
 | | requests (movable, but | users requests. |
 | | not sizable). | Recommend they are |
 | | | movable and sizable. |
 | | | |
 | | | |
 | | | Terminology change - |
 | | | dialog box term no |
 | | | longer used. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Direct manipulation | Direct manipulation | Direct manipulation |
 | | discussed briefly. | discussed as a |
 | | | pervasive technique. |
 | | | |
 | | | |
 | | | Recommendation to |
 | | Direct manipulation of | provide direct |
 | | split bar not | manipulation for all |
 | | addressed | objects. |
 | | | |
 | | | Manipulation button |
 | | | drags split bar. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Do-not pointer | Not addressed. | Defines do-not |
 | | | pointer for use |
 | | | during |
 | | | direct-manipulation |
 | | | operations. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Drop-down combination | Order and number of | Recommend placing |
 | box | choices not addressed. | choices in numeric, |
 | | | alphabetic, or |
 | | | chronological order |
 | | | and display at least |
 | | | six choices in a box. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Drop-down list | Order and number of | Recommend placing |
 | | choices not addressed. | choices in numeric, |
 | | | alphabetic, or |
 | | | chronological order |
 | | | and display at least |
 | | | six choices in a box. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Edit menu | Redo: Not addressed. | Redo choice used to |
 | | | reverse the effect of |
 | | | an undo action. |
 | | | |
 | | Create: Not | Create choice used to |
 | | addressed. | create a new object |
 | | | or a reflection of |
 | | | the current object |
 | | | using the clipboard. |
 | | Find: Not addressed. | |
 | | | |
 | | | Find choice allows a |
 | | | user to search for an |
 | | | object or a part of |
 | | | an object. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Field prompts | Left-align field | Allow left-aligned or |
 | | prompts only. | right-aligned field |
 | | | prompts. |
 | | | |
 | | Field prompts followed | Field prompts |
 | | by colons shown in | followed by colons no |
 | | many examples. | longer suggested or |
 | | | used in examples. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | File menu | File: Name used for | File -- used for |
 | | first menu choice on | application- oriented |
 | | the menu bar. | windows; "class name" |
 | | | used for first menu |
 | | | choice of |
 | | | object-oriented |
 | | Open as: Not | windows. |
 | | addressed. | |
 | | | Opens another view of |
 | | | the object in another |
 | | Print: Allows a | window. |
 | | window for more | |
 | | information | Print: Allows a |
 | | | window for more |
 | | | information, and |
 | | Exit (optional) | allows a cascaded |
 | | | menu for printer |
 | | | selection |
 | | | |
 | | | Not used; performed |
 | | | by close action of |
 | | | system menu in |
 | | | associated primary |
 | | | window. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Folder | Not addressed. | System-provided |
 | | | container used to |
 | | | group objects. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Group box | Capitalization rules | Capitalize first |
 | | not addressed. | letter only (some |
 | | | exceptions |
 | | Not addressed. | described). |
 | | | |
 | | | Recommend using only |
 | | | when white space or |
 | | | group headings would |
 | | | be insufficient. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Help menu | Help menu choices | Help menu choices are |
 | | displayed with | not displayed with |
 | | ellipses. | ellipses. |
 | | | |
 | | Help for help choice | Terminology change -- |
 | | | Using help. |
 | | | Position change in |
 | | Extended help choice | the Help menu. |
 | | | |
 | | | Terminology change -- |
 | | Keys help | General help |
 | | | |
 | | | Removed from Help |
 | | Not addressed. | menu, now accessed |
 | | | from the help index. |
 | | | |
 | | | |
 | | Help index choice | Recommend describing |
 | | | settings for buttons |
 | | About choice -- leads | on pointing device in |
 | | to a logo window. | keys help. |
 | | | |
 | | | Position change in |
 | | | Help menu. |
 | | | |
 | | | Terminology change -- |
 | | | Product information |
 | | | choice leads to a |
 | | | product-information |
 | | | window. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Hide | Not addressed. | A choice that removes |
 | | | a window and all |
 | | | associated windows |
 | | | from the workplace. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Hourglass pointer | Hourglass pointer term | Recommend displaying |
 | | used. | wait pointer over |
 | | | parts of a window. |
 | | | |
 | | | Terminology change -- |
 | | | called a wait |
 | | | pointer. |
 | | | |
 | | | Two wait pointer |
 | | | visuals are |
 | | | available. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Information area | Not addressed. | Information area |
 | | | defined as part of a |
 | | | window where |
 | | | information appears |
 | | | about the object or |
 | | | choice that the |
 | | | cursor is on. |
 | | | Information about the |
 | | | normal completion of |
 | | | a process can also |
 | | | appear in the |
 | | | information area. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Information message | Used for normal | Used when additional |
 | | processing situations | information about a |
 | | when there are no | completed process is |
 | | additional actions | available and no |
 | | available. | progress indicator is |
 | | | displayed, or when a |
 | | | process cannot |
 | | | complete and there |
 | | | are no additional |
 | | | actions available. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | In-use emphasis | Not addressed. | In-use emphasis |
 | | | defined for opened |
 | | | objects. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Keyboard | Accelerator keys | Terminology change -- |
 | | | Shortcut keys |
 | | | |
 | | No guidance given | If changed by users, |
 | | about user changes. | changes reflected in |
 | | | menus and help. |
 | | Case sensitivity not | |
 | | addressed. | Allow either upper or |
 | | | lowercase characters. |
 | | | |
 | | Use of preferred | |
 | | modifiers not | Recommend using the |
 | | addressed. | Alt key element of |
 | | | shortcut key |
 | | | assignments to only |
 | | | provide access to |
 | | | mnemonics and to |
 | | | provide access to |
 | | | operating-environment-|rovided
 | | | shortcut keys. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Message box | Special type of dialog | Secondary windows |
 | | box used for messages | used for messages. |
 | | (modal and sizable) | Recommend they are |
 | | | modeless and sizable. |
 | | | |
 | | | |
 | | | Terminology change -- |
 | | | message box term no |
 | | | longer used. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Messages | Application name used | Object name -- action |
 | | for window title. | used in window title. |
 | | | |
 | | Messages are | |
 | | application modal and | Recommend to allow a |
 | | nonsizable. | user to continue |
 | | | interacting with |
 | | | parts of an object |
 | | | while message |
 | | Controls in messages | displayed and size |
 | | not addressed. | messages. |
 | | | |
 | | Not addressed. | Recommend providing |
 | | | interactive controls |
 | | | in messages. |
 | | | |
 | | | Describes displaying |
 | | | message symbol on |
 | | | icon if window is not |
 | | | open. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Modal and modeless | Modeless dialogs used | Modeless windows |
 | | only for repeat | encouraged for all |
 | | actions. | windows. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Mouse | Using mouse to create | Ctrl+Shift+Manipulatio|
 | | a reflection not | button assigned to |
 | | addressed. | create reflection |
 | | | operation. |
 | | | |
 | | Effect of move and | Move and copy |
 | | copy operations on | operations effect on |
 | | pointer visuals not | pointer visuals |
 | | addressed. | defined. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Multiple document | Used to view many | Multiple windows used |
 | interface | objects or multiple | to view many objects |
 | | views of same object. | or multiple views of |
 | | All windows contained | the same object. |
 | | within one window and | Multiple document |
 | | share a menu bar. | interface only |
 | | | addressed in the |
 | | | context of migration. |
 | | | Also see the Windows |
 | | | menu. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Notebook | Not addressed. | New control. |
 | | | Recommended for |
 | | | displaying settings |
 | | | and some types of |
 | | | objects. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Options menu | Contains | Used primarily in |
 | | product-specific | application- oriented |
 | | choices related to the | windows. Encourages |
 | | application. | using a notebook |
 | | | control for these |
 | | | types of choices. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Pop-up menu | Not defined | Pop-up menus defined |
 | | | to display actions |
 | | | for indicated object. |
 | | | |
 | | | Shift+F10 and |
 | | | chording selection |
 | | | and manipulation |
 | | | buttons display |
 | | | pop-up menu of |
 | | | indicated object. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Progress indicator | Display a progress | Display a progress |
 | | indicator for complex | indicator for tasks |
 | | tasks. | that take more than 5 |
 | | | seconds. |
 | | Not addressed. | |
 | | | Display a progress |
 | | | indicator in action |
 | | | window where process |
 | | Only a Stop push | is requested. |
 | | button is defined for | |
 | | controlling the | Stop, Pause, and |
 | | process. | Resume push buttons |
 | | | defined for |
 | | | controlling the |
 | | | process. Close push |
 | | Title not addressed. | button not allowed |
 | | | for stopping the |
 | | | process. |
 | | | |
 | | Help not addressed. | Use the word |
 | | | "progress" in the |
 | | Removing the progress | window title. |
 | | indicator not | |
 | | addressed. | Recommend providing |
 | | | Help. |
 | | | |
 | | | Product removes the |
 | | | progress indicator if |
 | | | no special completion |
 | | | information needed; |
 | | | otherwise the user |
 | | | removes the progress |
 | | | indicator. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Pull-down menu | Recommended at least | Not addressed. |
 | | two choices in a | |
 | | pull-down menu. | |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Push button | Changing contents of a | Use two push buttons, |
 | | push button not | do not change content |
 | | addressed. | of same push button. |
 | | | |
 | | | |
 | | Normal position is in | Place push buttons |
 | | lower area of window. | that affect an entire |
 | | | window horizontally |
 | | | at the bottom of the |
 | | | window, justified |
 | | | from the left edge. |
 | | | If a push button is |
 | | | associated with a |
 | | Push buttons not | component, place it |
 | | allowed in windows | near the component. |
 | | with menu bars. | |
 | | | |
 | | Position of push | Push buttons allowed |
 | | buttons when sizing or | in windows with menu |
 | | scrolling not | bars. |
 | | addressed. | |
 | | Default push button | Push buttons remain |
 | | required for each | in same relative |
 | | window containing push | position when sizing |
 | | buttons. | or scrolling. |
 | | | |
 | | Pause, Resume, Close, | Default push button |
 | | and Continue: not | recommended for each |
 | | addressed. | window containing |
 | | | push buttons. |
 | | | |
 | | | Recommended usage |
 | | | described for Pause, |
 | | | Resume, Close, and |
 | | | Continue. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Radio button | None choice not | Recommend None choice |
 | | addressed. | if a user can choose |
 | | | not to select any of |
 | | | a set of choices. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Reflection | Not addressed. | An object represented |
 | | | by more than one |
 | | | icon. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Restore of minimized | Restore returns to | Restore returns to |
 | windows | middle size. | previous size and |
 | | | position. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Scroll bar | Slider box -- part of | Terminology change -- |
 | | the scroll bar used to | scroll box. |
 | | scroll. | |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Scroll increment | General descriptions | Recommendations |
 | | given, text examples | included for icons, |
 | | provided. | graphics, and text. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Secondary window | Term used only to | Terminology |
 | | refer to movable, | change--definition |
 | | sizable windows | expanded to include |
 | | dependent on another | all windows dependent |
 | | primary window. | on another primary |
 | | | window (independent |
 | | | of whether they are |
 | | May not be minimized | movable or sizable). |
 | | | |
 | | | |
 | | | May be minimized when |
 | | | used to display views |
 | | | of objects. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Selected emphasis | Referred to as | Terminology change -- |
 | | selected emphasis | selected-state |
 | | | emphasis. |
 | | Use inverse color for | |
 | | selected emphasis on | For all objects show |
 | | text. | by changing the |
 | | | foreground and |
 | | | background colors. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Selected menu | Functions were | New menu-bar choice |
 | | available in the File | used for actions on |
 | | menu for list | selected objects |
 | | handlers. | within the window. |
 | | | |
 | | | Choice used to |
 | | Open as choice -- Not | display another view |
 | | addressed. | of an object in a |
 | | | window. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Separators | Not addressed. | White space |
 | | | recommended except in |
 | | | menus. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Single-line entry | Specific rules for | When the length of |
 | field | visible length not | data is predictable, |
 | | addressed. | such as time or date, |
 | | | the field should be |
 | | | entirely visible. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Slider | Not addressed. | New control to |
 | | | represent a quantity |
 | | | and its relationship |
 | | | to a range of |
 | | Usage of scroll bar | possible values. |
 | | for numeric values not | |
 | | addressed. | Slider control used. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Source emphasis and | Not defined | Defines source |
 | target emphasis | | emphasis and target |
 | | | emphasis for |
 | | | direct-manipulation |
 | | | operations. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Spin button | Not defined. | Order of choices is |
 | | | based on type of |
 | | | data. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Split window | Allows only one | Allows multiple |
 | | vertical and one | vertical and |
 | | horizontal split. | horizontal splits. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Status area | Not addressed. | Status area defined |
 | | | as part of a window |
 | | | where information |
 | | | appears about the |
 | | | state of an object or |
 | | | the state of a |
 | | | particular view of an |
 | | | object. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | System menu | Close choice does not | Close choice |
 | | address saving window | recommends saving |
 | | status information. | window state, such as |
 | | | its position, size, |
 | | Close choice only | and associated |
 | | addressed for dialog | messages. |
 | | boxes. | |
 | | | Result of Close |
 | | | choice defined |
 | | | depending on window |
 | | | content. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Title bar mini-icon | Introduced in the | Referred to as the |
 | | workplace environment | small icon in the |
 | | and referred to as the | title bar. |
 | | Title bar mini-icon. | |
 | | | |
 | | | Defines use of target |
 | | Not addressed. | emphasis during |
 | | | direct-manipulation |
 | | | operations. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Tool palette | Briefly described | Content and usage |
 | | | described. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Value set control | When to use value set | Use a value set for |
 | | as opposed to a radio | graphical and short |
 | | button was not | textual choices. Use |
 | | addressed. | a radio button for |
 | | | textual choices. |
 | | Type of choices to | Display only setting |
 | | allow not addressed | choices in a value |
 | | | set. |
 | | Minimum number of | |
 | | choices not addressed | Use at least two |
 | | | choices when a value |
 | | | set is used. |
 | | How to display shared | |
 | | setting not addressed | Use the same sharing |
 | | | emphasis that is used |
 | | | for radio buttons. |
 | | Providing a default | |
 | | choice not addressed. | Provide one of the |
 | | | choices as a default |
 | | | choice. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | View menu | Names of views | Names of views are |
 | | addressed in the View | listed at the top of |
 | | menu. | the View menu. |
 | | | |
 | | All: Used to see the | Include: Used to see |
 | | entire contents. | the entire contents |
 | | | or part of the |
 | | Some: Used to see | contents. |
 | | part of the contents. | |
 | | | Include: Used to see |
 | | | the entire contents |
 | | By: Used to sort the | or part of the |
 | | contents. | contents. |
 | | | |
 | | Refresh: Not | Terminology change -- |
 | | addressed. | Sort. |
 | | | |
 | | | Refresh ÿ On/Off used |
 | | | to allow a user to |
 | | Refresh now: Not | control updates to |
 | | addressed. | the window contents. |
 | | | |
 | | | |
 | | | Refresh now: Used to |
 | | | update the window |
 | | | contents immediately. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Warning message | Yes and No push | Recommend using |
 | | buttons allowed. | Continue push buttons |
 | | | and action push |
 | | | buttons. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Window menu | Used for MDI windows. | Terminology change -- |
 | | | Windows menu used to |
 | | | access and manage |
 | | | related windows. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Window title | "Application name -- | Added window title |
 | | OS/2 file name" | rules for |
 | | | object-oriented |
 | | | windows |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Work area | Not addressed. | A container used to |
 | | | group objects by |
 | | | task. |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|

D.0 Appendix D. Common User Access and National Language Support


The purpose of the Common User Access (CUA) guidelines of the Systems
Application Architecture (SAA) is to facilitate the design of products
that are easy to learn, easy to use, productive and consistent. While
consistency is well understood, "ease of learning" and "ease of use" is
very much dependent on a user's cultural environment, particularly their
language.


The CUA guidelines are given in the main body of this publication. This
appendix assumes you are familiar with those guidelines and only describes
features of the interface that may require different guidelines or need
clarification when applied in different users' cultural environments.




Subtopics:

D.1 General Considerations for National Language and the CUA Guidelines




The following clarifies some of the CUA guidelines when applied to a
National Language environment.


Capitalization The guidelines stated for capitalization in this
 manual are for the English language developer. When a
 product is developed in another language or translated
 to another language, the rules of that language must
 be followed. For example, in the German language all
 nouns are capitalized, no matter what their position
 in a phrase or sentence.


Column Headings The space needed for a column heading after
 translation may increase. For usability purposes, the
 additional space may be achieved by increasing the
 number of rows in the heading.


Descriptive Text Descriptive text will sometimes reflect a localized or
 culturally sensitive format. Allow the user to edit
 the descriptive text in place.


Field Prompts The translation of field prompts may cause a field to
 be moved. Fields must be realigned after translation.


First-Letter Cursor Navigation
Allow a user to press the unaccented, uppercase, or
lowercase character to access accented first letters.


Icon An icon designed for the international market place
 should follow these additional design criteria.


° Avoid body parts
° Use international symbols where possible
° Do not include text
° If alphabetic characters are included, use
uppercase
° Avoid symbolic written material that is oriented
for left-to-right text
° Avoid stars and crosses
° Do not use humor
° Do not use regional metaphors.


Length of Text When a product will be translated to another language,
 developers should consider translation space when
 evaluating length of text in entry fields. For
 example, CUA guidelines recommend 60 or fewer
 characters in a single-line entry field. If the
 product will be translated, 40 or fewer characters are
 recommended.


Shortcut Keys The use of Alt+(A-Z) for shortcut keys can be very
 awkward on non-US keyboards since only either the left
 hand Alt key or the right hand Alt key may be
 available for this function.


Sort Each country has a different way of sorting, and may
 have several ways of sorting within the country, such
 as in a telephone book or a dictionary. The sort menu
 should be defined by each country or application. The
 sort menu may have to allow selection of these
 criteria based on the requirements of the country or
 application. In addition, when lists are ordered
 alphabetically, as in spin buttons, the list must be
 reordered after translation.

D.2 Double-Byte Character Sets




The following are some of the special considerations when applying the CUA
guidelines to Double-Byte Character Sets.


° Mnemonic Selection: A mnemonic is a single character that provides a
 fast interaction technique for selecting choices from the keyboard.
 When users type a valid mnemonic, the selection cursor moves to the
 choice that the mnemonic is assigned to and the choice is
 automatically selected or deselected as appropriate. This saves
 keystrokes for choices that are usually selected explicitly.


All the guidelines for mnemonics in a single-byte-character-set (SBCS)
language apply to a double-byte-character-set (DBCS) language except
for how the mnemonics are shown. If all the letters in a choice are
already assigned, or the choice consists of DBCS characters, you may
choose another letter or a keyboard character, such as the comma (,).
Choices that appear many times in an application should be assigned
the same mnemonic throughout.


Applications translated from SBCS languages to DBCS languages can keep
the SBCS mnemonics.


° DBCS Keyboard Shift Status: In the DBCS environment, the Presentation
Manager has the capability to display the keyboard shift status in the
information area. This technique should be used in primary and
secondary windows that accept keyboard data entry for DBCS
applications.


° Sort: For components, such as the combination box control, that
specify choices should be shown in a specific sort order such as
alphabetic order, the sort order may actually depend on the
application. For example, for Japanese Kanji it may be better to sort
by Japanese phonetic order or some other appropriate order depending
on the information in the field.

D.3 Bidirectional Languages




The main factor affecting CUA guidelines for users of bidirectional
languages (Arabic and Hebrew) is the right-to-left (RTL) orientation of
these languages; Hebrew or Arabic text is written from right to left and
from top to bottom. However, English words and numbers are written from
left to right (LTR). This makes bidirectionality a must in any system
intended for Arabic or Hebrew users.


This is the basic rule of bidirectional applications.


In CUA-interface-conforming applications, all pieces of data must
be displayed in the orientation that is correct for the
application user. Data input must be supported in the orientation
that is natural for users.


General information concerning the Arabic language can be found in
National Language Information and Design Guide, Volume 3: Arabic Script
Languages, (SE09-8003). This publication describes the Arabic language,
 and the main keyboard functions implemented on terminals and programmable
 workstations with Arabic support.


General information concerning the Hebrew language may be found in
National Language Information and Design Guide, Volume 4: Hebrew
(SE09-8004). This publication describes the Hebrew language, and the main
keyboard functions implemented on terminals and programmable workstations
with Hebrew support.


In most cases, Arabic and Hebrew can be handled in the same way. We will
use "Arabic and Hebrew" as a generic designator for the national language
used by a bidirectional application. Whenever special considerations
apply to Arabic only or to Hebrew only, they will be mentioned explicitly.


In all examples, Arabic and Hebrew text is represented by lowercase Latin,
written from right to left. English text is represented by uppercase,
although in reality it would be written in mixed case, if appropriate.




Subtopics:

D.3.1 Language Usage




Arabic and Hebrew applications must generally use the national language
for titles, instructions, headings, prompts, and other window components,
with the following exceptions:


° English acronyms or terms commonly used untranslated, for example,
DOS, EXE, CICS.


° Key names must be identical to the key top engraving, for example, F1,
Alt, Ctrl, Enter.


° Key combinations must be displayed as English phrases, for example,
"Alt+F2."




Subtopics:

D.3.1.2 Mnemonics




In a RTL window, choices appear in Arabic and Hebrew and their mnemonics
are in Arabic and Hebrew. However, if a choice is in English, its
corresponding mnemonic must also be English.


In Arabic, any shape of a letter can be used for mnemonic.

D.3.1.1 Application Language Specification




An application may allow dynamic language selection. When a new language
is chosen by a user, headings, messages, and commands should adhere to the
new language. For RTL languages, the application interface reflects CUA
guidelines with this bidirectional language addendum. When the
application contains a mixture of RTL and LTR language elements, the LTR
elements follow the unmodified CUA guidelines while the RTL elements
follow CUA guidelines with this bidirectional Languages addendum.


The application language must be mentioned in the product information
window, if the application is not unilingual. If the application allows
dynamic language selection, the initial language must be mentioned in the
product information window.

D.3.1.3 Character Presentation Shapes in Arabic




Arabic characters take various presentation shapes according to the
writing context and the writer's intention:


° For continuous text, traditional characters' presentation shapes may
be automatically selected for each character according to its linkage
capabilities and to the linkage capabilities of its neighbors.


° In some cases (like acronyms, abbreviations, paragraph numbering, or
stock item part numbers), character presentation shapes are usually
selected by the writer without following the traditional contextual
writing rules.


° Applications, and users within the limits defined by the application,
must be allowed to decide on characters' presentation shapes and on
their relevance in the various contexts.




Data Entry: Arabic keyboards provide one single representative (one
 shape) for each Arabic character, using one of its shapes selected for the
 best balanced readability of the whole keyboard. Specific function keys
 allow the user to either activate automatic contextual selection of Arabic
 characters' presentation shapes, or to specify which is the desired
 presentation shape for a given occurrence of a character.




Data Handling: According to the type of data and to the processing
 required, various cases may occur:


° Actual character shape is significant: exact match on shapes where
another shape of the same letter will result in a no-match. For
example: text formatting for final presentation.


° Actual shape is indifferent: any can be used and all should be
permitted. This is the case where a shape has been selected as a
mnemonic for a choice in an menu bar, and any shape for this character
must be allowed as a correct match to the mnemonic.

D.3.1.4 Numeric Shape Selection in Arabic




In any given Arabic-language environment:


° Digits appearing in a Latin context will be presented in their usual
Arabic shapes.


° Digits appearing in an Arabic context will be presented in either
their Hindi shapes or their Arabic shapes, according to the prevailing
local tradition.


° Applications, and users within the limits defined by the application,
must be allowed to select digit presentation shapes and to decide on
their relevance in the various contexts.




Data entry: Hindi and Arabic shapes for the same digit are on the same
 key on the keyboard. Depending on the customization done for digit-shape
 selection and on the currently selected keyboard language, the
 corresponding digit codes and shapes are generated and presented.




Data handling: The possible cases are very similar to those for Arabic
 characters: digit shapes may be indifferent (for arithmetic processing) or
 mandatory (for presentation preparation).

D.3.2 Orientation




Arabic and Hebrew applications, since written for the Arabic and Hebrew
language, use the screen space in RTL orientation. Thus the right side of
a window becomes the "begin" side, and its left side is the "end" side.
Most references to "right" and "left" in the CUA guidelines for LTR
languages remain true in Arabic and Hebrew, providing that "right" and
"left" are exchanged (in some cases, "right" and "left" must be conserved
as-is for Arabic and Hebrew. They are mentioned in the following
paragraph).


The appearance of an Arabic and Hebrew window is mostly the mirror
symmetric of a corresponding English window ("mostly" because the position
of system and maximize and minimize push buttons in the title bar does not
change. A discussion about vertical scroll bars appears in the following
paragraphs).


For instance, a window with some choices could look like Figure 211.




 




Figure 211. Window with Choices


It must be understood that orientation applies at multiple levels:


° In a bidirectional environment, the end user selects the orientation
of the workplace (for example, screen orientation). Selection is done
according to the user's main usage, standards, or preferences and
controls the way the screen and windows are organized. If this
orientation is RTL:


- Windows are tiled, cascaded, or superimposed with the older
primary window on the right and the newer secondary on the left


- Application icons are ordered from right-to-left beginning from
the right side of the screen.


- In a workplace environment, icons should be originally ordered
from right-to-left and top-to-bottom if there is a meaningful
sequence among them.


° An application has a general orientation for its windows, which is LTR
for English applications and generally RTL for Arabic and Hebrew
applications.


° A window has an orientation. If the window orientation is RTL, its
elements are logically ordered from right-to-left and from
top-to-bottom.


For a RTL window, the priority for positioning associated secondary
windows (like help windows) is: to the left of, to the right of,
above, or below the application window.


Note that an Arabic or Hebrew application can include some LTR
windows.


Note also that a LTR window can be used on a RTL screen and
vice-versa. This means that English services and applications can be
used while the screen is oriented RTL and Arabic and Hebrew (RTL)
applications can be used on a LTR screen.


° Within the same window, text and graphics may have differing
orientations. This may be the case, for instance, for a geographic
map where the graphics will be left-to-right (as for an English
application), but the Arabic and Hebrew captions will be
right-to-left.


° Entry fields are a special case: for each field, an orientation is
defined, which by default is RTL within RTL windows. However, fields
which are to receive numeric data or English text should be defined as
LTR oriented.


Within an entry field, the keying (or cursor) direction may be RTL or
LTR, according to the data entered (Arabic or Hebrew text, or English
and numbers).


More explanations on entry fields will be found in the following
paragraphs.


Note: While the "right" and "left" have exchanged their meaning, the
 physical right and left are still the same, thus the following have the
 same effect for Arabic and Hebrew as for English:


° Cursor movement keys (left and right arrows) must still move the
cursor according to the direction of the arrow engraved on the key top
(this is also true for combinations of the left and right arrow keys
with Shift, Ctrl or Alt).


Likewise, Ctrl+PgUp must always scroll to the left, and Ctrl+PgDn
scroll to the right.


° Right and left buttons of a pointing device.


° Right and left movement of a pointing device.


° Graphics may be unaffected by the window orientation: for instance, a
map must still have the East on the right side and the West on the
left side.

D.3.3 RTL Flavor of CUA-Interface Components




The following topics address the various aspects of the CUA guidelines as
applied in the bidirectional Language environment.




Subtopics:

D.3.3.1 Title Bar




Title bars have the same general layout in right-to-left windows as in
left-to-right windows:


° Window-menu icon on the left
° Window title in the middle
° Window-sizing buttons on the right.


When the window title itself has a right-to-left orientation (written in
Arabic or Hebrew), it must truncate on the left whenever it would truncate
on the right if written in English. This is true both for right-to-left
and left-to-right windows.

D.3.3.2 Scroll Bars




° Vertical scroll bars are on the right side for left-to-right windows,
on the left side for right-to-left windows.


° Horizontal scroll bars never extend under the vertical scroll bar of
the same window. If the vertical scroll bar is on the left
(right-to-left window), the horizontal scroll bar may extend from the
right window border to the right side of the vertical bar.




 




Figure 212. Scroll Bars in a Right-to-Left Window

D.3.3.3 Menu Bar




° The text of the menu bar choices is aligned on the right.


° If the list of actions is too long to be contained in one line, it is
its "end" part that wraps to an additional line: left part for a
right-to-left window, right part for a left-to-right window.

D.3.3.4 Menu Bar Pull-Down Menus in a RTL Window




° The right border of a pull-down menu is aligned with the right side of
its corresponding menu bar choice.


° Text of pull-down choices is aligned on the right.


° Ellipses (...) appear on the left of the corresponding choice.


° Shortcut keys appear on the left of the corresponding choice.


° For cascaded menus, a left-pointing arrow appears at the left of the
pull-down choice text as a visual cue that this choice has an
associated, hidden pull-down. The cascaded pull-down will be
displayed on the left of its first-level choice.




 




Figure 213. Cascaded Menu

D.3.3.5 RTL Radio Button




° The circle appears to the right of the choice.
° The text of the choice is aligned on the right.




 




Figure 214. Radio Buttons

D.3.3.6 RTL Check Box




° The square box appears to the right of the choice.
° The text of the choice is aligned on the right.




 




Figure 215. Check Boxes

D.3.3.7 RTL List Box




° The text of the choice is aligned on the right.
° The vertical scroll bar is on the left side.




 




Figure 216. List Box

D.3.3.8 Push buttons in a RTL Window




° Push buttons are ordered from right to left.


° The label in a push button is centered.


° If there is not enough room to place push buttons horizontally in the
lower part of a window, they may be placed vertically at the left side
of a window.

D.3.3.9 Progress Indicator in a RTL Window




° The progress indicator in a right-to-left window advances from right
to left.

D.3.3.10 RTL Message Window




° The text must appear on the left side of the icon.


° In information messages and action messages, the label in the icon
must be the national equivalent of "i" and "STOP," respectively.

D.3.3.11 RTL Combination Box




° A combination box in a right-to-left window combines the bidirectional
characteristics of an entry field in a right-to-left window and a list
box in a right-to-left window.


° The list box appears beneath and to the left of an entry field.


° The vertical scroll bar of the list box appears on its left side.


° The left side of the list box is aligned with the left side of the
entry field.




 




Figure 217. Combination Box

D.3.3.12 RTL Drop-Down Combination Box




° The list button containing a downward-pointing arrow is at the left
side of the entry field.


° The left side of the list box is aligned with the left side of the
list button.


° The vertical scroll bar is on the left side.




 




Figure 218. Drop-Down Combination Box

D.3.3.13 RTL Drop-Down List




° The list button containing a downward-pointing arrow is at the left
side of the selection field.


° The vertical scroll bar is on the left side.




 




Figure 219. Drop-Down List

D.3.3.14 RTL Value Set




° Values are ordered from right-to-left (and from top-to-bottom).

D.3.3.15 RTL Spin Button




° The up and down arrow buttons are at the left side of the entry field.


° The prompt text, next to the arrow, is right aligned.




 




Figure 220. Spin Button

D.3.3.16 Field Prompt in a RTL Window




° The field prompt is located above or to the right of the affected
field. Its text is aligned on the right.


° If it is located above the field, it is right-aligned with the right
side of the field.


° If it is located to the right of a field, it must be right-aligned
with other field prompts.


° If descriptive text supplements the field prompt, it must be placed to
the left of the affected entry field.




 ______________ 
99 ot pu | | :seipoc
|______________|




Figure 221. Descriptive Text. "99 ot pu" is descriptive text

D.3.3.17 Column and Group Headings in a RTL Window




° All alignments are to the right.

D.3.3.18 Group Box in a RTL Window




° The title appears at the top-right side of a group box (see the
examples for radio button and check box).

D.3.3.19 Notebook




° A RTL notebook has back pages painted on the left side by default.


° If the tabs are on the top or bottom edge, they are ordered logically
from right to left.


° If the notebook has arrows to turn the pages forward or backward, they
should be on the left side of the page.

D.3.3.20 Slider




° Place slider buttons to the left of the slider shaft.


° Horizontal slider shafts should be filled from the right to the slider
arm.

D.3.4 Entry Fields




In a bidirectional application, each field has an orientation that is
defined by the application (by default, entry fields assume the same
orientation as the encompassing window). According to the expected
contents of the field, the application must define it as RTL (Arabic and
Hebrew textual data) or LTR (numeric data, or English textual data).




Subtopics:

D.3.4.1 RTL Entry Fields




RTL fields differ from LTR fields in the following ways:


° Data are right-aligned in the field.


° At initial entry, the cursor is located at the rightmost position.


° The cursor movement is initiated as right-to-left: in Replace mode,
 with each entry the text cursor moves left to the next entry position;
 in Insert mode, the cursor and all characters to the left of the
 cursor are shifted one position to the left with each entry.


° If the field is scrollable, the rightmost field positions are
initially visible. When the cursor moves to the left, the information
scrolls so as to show more characters on the left side. In summary,
the beginning of the information is on the right side, its end on the
left side.


The following example illustrates initial cursor placement and cursor
movement when typing RTL data in a RTL entry field (in Insert mode).




 ______________________ 
initial state | | | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
type "a" | |a | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
type "b" | |ba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
type "c" | |cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
type " street," | | ,teerts cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|




Figure 222. Typing in a RTL field


When text must be typed in an orientation opposite to the field
orientation (like numbers within a RTL field), the special bidirectional
functions "Push" and "EndPush" are used.


In the following example, the house number (LTR) is added to the address
(RTL field).




 ______________________ 
| | ,teerts cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
press "Push" | | ,teerts cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
type "1" | 1| ,teerts cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
type "2" | 12| ,teerts cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
type "3" | 123| ,teerts cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|




Figure 223. Typing a Push Segment


Note that during a Push operation, the cursor does not move (calculator
effect). The cursor stands on the character at the boundary between the
surrounding RTL text (the street name in our example) and the Push segment
(the house number).


When "EndPush" is pressed to end the operation, the cursor skips beyond
the Push segment. This allows to continue the RTL text if necessary.




 ______________________ 
Push is active | 123| ,teerts cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
press "EndPush" | |123 ,teerts cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|


______________________
type "." | |.123 ,teerts cba | . . . sserdda
|______________________|




Figure 224. Ending a Push Segment

D.3.4.2 Text Cursor Appearance




It must be apparent whether the cursor stands at a "Push boundary" or not.
The Push boundary is where the latest character typed in a Push operation
appears (assuming that arrow keys were not used to move the cursor away).
Typing data at the Push boundary does not always have the same effect
("calculator" effect) as typing elsewhere, thus some visual feedback must
help the user differentiate between the two.

D.3.4.3 Text Cursor Position in Insert Mode




In general, the cursor has the same appearance as described for LTR text.
However, in Insert mode the vertical bar representing the cursor must be
on the proper side of the position of the cursor.




 _____________ 
EMPLOYEE'S NUMBER . . . | 12|345 | (Insert mode)
|_____________|




Figure 225. Cursor Placement in LTR Text (Insert Mode). "3" is the
cursored character; new text is inserted between "2" and "3."




 _____________ 
| edc|ba | . . . eman s'eeyolpme (Insert mode)
|_____________|




Figure 226. Cursor Placement in RTL Text (Insert Mode). "c" is the
cursored character; new text is inserted between "b" and "c."

D.3.4.4 Bidirectional Keyboard Functions in Entry Fields




Note: The descriptions given in this section are only an overview. For
 more details, product-specific documentation must be consulted.


SAA-conforming and CUA-interface-conforming applications must support the
Arabic or Hebrew keyboard functions:




Language selection (Arabic or Hebrew/English): This function manually
 selects the active keyboard layer.




Shape selection (for Arabic only): These functions allow the user to
 enable automatic shape determination (ASD) or to select the requested
 letter shapes manually.




Shape (for Arabic only): These functions lets the user reshape the whole
 content of an entry field using the ASD mechanism.




DeShape (for Arabic only): These functions let the user convert the
 content of an entry field to base shapes.




Field Reverse: This function swaps the field orientation. It overrides
 the application-defined field orientation for the current entry operation.
 For instance, a "customer name" field, defined as having RTL orientation,
 is overridden to LTR orientation in order to type the name of an English
 customer.




Push/EndPush: These functions allow the typing of a piece of text with an
 orientation opposite to the general orientation of the field. This may be
 used to type numbers or English words within a RTL field, or Arabic and
 Hebrew words within a LTR field.




AutoPush: This feature (which can be enabled or disabled by the user)
 automatically exercises the Push and EndPush functions when certain
 characters are typed. For instance, typing digits or English letters
 within a RTL field automatically begins a Push operation; typing Arabic or
 Hebrew afterwards begins an EndPush operation.




Bidirectional Status Window: This function puts a window on the screen
 that displays the status of all bidirectional indicators.

D.3.4.5 How Various Keys Work in RTL Entry Fields




Left-Arrow Key: The Left-Arrow key moves the text cursor one character
 position to the left until it reaches the last visible position. If the
 field scrolls, the Left-Arrow key moves the cursor until it reaches the
 next available character space after the end of the information in the
 field, at the same time information scrolls to the right.




Right-Arrow Key: The Right-Arrow key moves the text cursor one character
 position to the right until it reaches the entry field boundary; that is,
 until the cursor is under the first character for Replace mode, or until
 it is to the right of the first character for Insert mode. If the field
 scrolls, the Right-Arrow key moves the cursor to the beginning of the
 field, while information scrolls left.




Word-Left Key: The Word-Left key moves the cursor to the first logical
 position of the word on the left of the nearest blank to the left on the
 line.




Word-Right Key: The Word-Right key moves the cursor to the first logical
 position of the word on the right of the nearest blank to the right on the
 line.




Delete Key in RTL Text: If something is selected, this key deletes the
 selection. If no selection exists (for example, in Insert mode), it
 deletes the character to the left of the text cursor. Characters to the
 left of the deleted character move right to fill the vacated position.
 The cursor remains stationary at the point where the character was
 deleted.




Backspace Key in RTL Text: If something is selected, this key deletes the
 selection. If no selection exists (for example, in Insert mode), it
 deletes the character to the right of the cursor and moves the cursor one
 space to the right. The characters to the left of the cursor move right
 one position to fill the vacated space. The Backspace key has no effect
 when the cursor is at the beginning of an entry field.


Note: The descriptions given in this section are only an overview. For
 more details, product-specific documentation must be consulted.


Note: Some keys mentioned in this section may cause a change in the shape
 of Arabic characters at the cursor position and adjacent to it.

D.3.4.6 Multiple-Line Entry Field




For RTL multiple-line entry fields, the following additional consideration
applies. If the cursor is in a multiple-line entry field, pressing the
Enter key moves the cursor to the next line. Any text that was to the
left of the cursor prior to pressing the Enter key is repositioned on the
next line. The cursor is positioned at the beginning of the line.

D.3.5 Navigation in a RTL Window






Subtopics:

D.3.5.1 Tab




This key moves the cursor to the next field, either the next entry field
or the first choice of a selection field if no choice is selected, The
cursor moves from right to left and top to bottom. At the bottom-leftmost
field, the cursor moves to the top-rightmost field.

D.3.5.2 Backtab




This key moves the cursor to the previous field, either the previous entry
field or the first choice of a selection field if no choice is selected,
The cursor moves from left to right and bottom to top. At the
top-rightmost field, the cursor moves to the bottom-leftmost field.

D.3.5.3 Beginning of Data




This key moves the cursor to the first logical position in the current
field: top-rightmost for a RTL field, top-leftmost for a LTR field.

D.3.5.4 End of Data




This key moves the cursor to the last logical position in the current
field: bottom-leftmost for a RTL field, bottom-rightmost for a LTR field.

D.3.5.5 Beginning of Line




This key moves the cursor to the rightmost choice.

D.3.5.6 End of Line




This key moves the cursor to the leftmost choice.

D.3.5.7 Up Arrow




This key moves the cursor to the next choice above the current choice in
the field. At the topmost choice, the cursor wraps to the bottom of the
next choice to the right. At the top-rightmost choice, the cursor wraps
to the bottom-leftmost choice in the field. Scrolling should be performed
as required to ensure that the selection cursor remains visible.

D.3.5.8 Down Arrow




This key moves the cursor to the next choice below the current choice in
the field. At the bottommost choice, the cursor wraps to the top of the
next choice to the left. At the bottom-leftmost choice, the cursor wraps
to the top-rightmost choice in the field. Scrolling should be performed
as required to ensure that the selection cursor remains visible.

D.3.5.9 Left Arrow key




This key moves the cursor to the next choice to the left of the current
choice in the field. At the leftmost choice, the cursor wraps to the
rightmost choice below the current position in the field. At the
bottom-leftmost choice, the cursor wraps to the top-rightmost choice in
the field. Scrolling should be performed as required to ensure that the
selection cursor remains visible.

D.3.5.10 Right Arrow




This key moves the cursor to the next choice to the right of the current
choice in the field. At the rightmost choice, the cursor wraps to the
leftmost choice above the current position in the field. At the
top-rightmost choice, the cursor wraps to the bottom-leftmost choice in
the field. Scrolling should be performed as required to ensure that the
selection cursor remains visible.

D.3.5.11 Next Key




The Next key moves the cursor one position forward according to the
logical sequence. On the boundary between segments of different
orientations, this key steps through the transition states from one
segment to the logically following one.

D.3.5.12 Previous Key




The Previous key moves the cursor one position backward according to the
logical sequence. On the boundary between segments of different
orientations, this key steps through the transition states from one
segment to the logically preceding one.

D.3.6 Key Assignments




The following notes apply to the table below:


1. The key combinations in the table are used for Arabic and Hebrew
keyboard functions and therefore must not be used in any way for any
other purpose.


2. The entries for "Personal Computer" apply equally to native Personal
Computer operation and to terminal emulation.


3. Current Arabic and Hebrew products implement subsets or variants of
the functions appearing in the table. The table reflects the SAA and
CUA interface guidelines for Arabic and Hebrew functions from now on.




 _______________________ ________________________ _______________________ 
| Function | Key Combinations | Key Numbers |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | National Language | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(right shift) | 60,62 + 57 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(right shift) | 60,62 + 57 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(right shift) | 60,62 + 57 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | English Language | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(left shift) | 60,62 + 44 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(left shift) | 60,62 + 44 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(left shift) | 60,62 + 44 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Push | | |
 | Personal Computer | Shift+NumLock | 44,57 + 90 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Push | 90 |
 | System/370 | Push | 90 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | EndPush | | |
 | Personal Computer | Shift+(Pad /) | 44,57 + 95 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| EndPush | 95 |
 | System/370 | EndPush | 95 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Field Reverse | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+NumLock | 60,62 + 90 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+Push | 60,62 + 90 |
 | System/370 | Alt+Push | 60,62 + 90 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | AutoPush | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad /) | 60,62 + 95 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+EndPush | 60,62 + 95 |
 | System/370 | Alt+EndPush | 60,62 + 95 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Next | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 0) | 60,62 + 99 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad 0) | 60,62 + 99 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 0) | 60,62 + 99 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Previous | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad .) | 60,62 + 104 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad .) | 60,62 + 104 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad .) | 60,62 + 104 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Screen Reverse | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+Enter (Hebrew) | 60,62 + 43 |
 | | Alt+Newline (Arabic) | 60,62 + 43 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Field Exit) | 60,62 + 43 |
 | System/370 | Alt+NewLine | 60,62 + 43 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | AutoReverse | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 5) | 60,62 + 97 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| -- | |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 5) | 60,62 + 97 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Indicator Window | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+ScrollLock | 60,62 + 125 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| -- | |
 | System/370 | -- | |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | ASD Active (Arabic) | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 4) | 60,62 + 92 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad 4) | 60,62 + 92 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 4) | 60,62 + 92 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Isolated Shape (Arabic| | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 2) | 60,62 + 98 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad 2) | 60,62 + 98 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 2) | 60,62 + 98 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Initial Shape (Arabic)| | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 1) | 60,62 + 93 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad 1) | 60,62 + 93 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 1) | 60,62 + 93 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Middle Shape (Arabic) | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 7) | 60,62 + 91 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad 7) | 60,62 + 91 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 7) | 60,62 + 91 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Final Shape (Arabic) | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 8) | 60,62 + 96 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad 8) | 60,62 + 96 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 8) | 60,62 + 96 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | Passthrough Shape (Ara|ic) | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 3) | 60,62 + 103 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad 3) | 60,62 + 103 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 3) | 60,62 + 103 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | FLD/X Shape (Arabic) | | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 9) | 60,62 + 101 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad 9) | 60,62 + 101 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 9) | 60,62 + 101 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|
 | FLD/B Deshape (Arabic)| | |
 | Personal Computer | Alt+(Pad 6) | 60,62 + 102 |
 | System/3X and AS/400| Alt+(Pad 6) | 60,62 + 102 |
 | System/370 | Alt+(Pad 6) | 60,62 + 102 |
 |_______________________|________________________|_______________________|

E.0 Appendix E. Translated Terms


This section contains a list of user terms that are part of the Common
User Access architecture and that non-English speaking application
developers use in their native languages. These terms, shown in English
and translated, are presented to users in windows and in information about
windows, such as messages, help, and documentation. Use only the
designated translations for these terms.


In this appendix, the terms are translated into the following languages:


° Arabic
° Brazilian Portuguese
° Chinese
° Danish
° Dutch
° Finnish
° French and French (Canadian)
° German
° Hebrew
° Italian
° Japanese
° Korean
° Norwegian
° Portuguese
° Spanish
° Swedish.




Subtopics:

E.1 Arabic




Two terms have been added for the bidirectional CUA guidelines.


direction The order of a sequence of objects which can be LTR or RTL.
 For instance, the typing direction (order of the generated
 characters) may be RTL or LTR.


orientation Attribute of an object which can be LTR or RTL as defined
 by the order of its subordinate elements. For instance, a
 field has RTL orientation if its characters are ordered
 from right to left.

E.2 Brazilian Portuguese




English Term Brazilian Portuguese Term
action ação
active window janela ativa
Apply Aplicar
border margem
button botão
Cancel Cancelar
cascaded menu menu em cascata
cascading choice escolha em cascata
check box caixa de verificação
check mark visto
choice escolha
chord acorde
Clear Limpar
click clique
clipboard memória temporária
Close Fechar
container contêiner
contextual help auxílio contextual
Continue Continuar
Copy Copiar
Create Criar
cursor cursor
Cut Remover
Delete Eliminar
Delete folder Pasta de eliminação
Deselect all Cancelar seleções
dialog diálogo
direct manipulation manipulação direta
directory diretório
do-not pointer Indicador não-fazer
double-click clique duplo
drag arrastar
drag and drop arrastar e fixar
Edit Editar
emphasis destaque
entry field campo de entrada
field campo
field prompt orientador de campo
File Arquivo
Find Pesquisar
folder pasta




English Term Brazilian Portuguese Term
Full menus Menus completos
General help Auxílio geral
group heading cabeçalho de grupo
Help Auxílio
Help index Índice remissivo de auxílio
Hide Esconder
I-beam pointer Indicador-I
icon ícone
inactive window janela inativa
Include Incluir
information area área de informação
Keys help Auxílio para teclas
list button botão de lista
manipulation button botão de manipulação
Maximize Maximizar
maximize button botão de maximizar
menu menu
menu bar barra de opções
menu-bar choice escolha da barra de opções
menu button botão de menu
menu choice opção de menu
message mensagem
Minimize Minimizar
minimize button botão de minimizar
mouse rato
mouse button botão do rato
Move Mover
New Novo
notebook arquivo de notas
object objeto
Off Desativar
OK OK
On Ativar
Open Abrir
Open as Abrir como
Options Opções
palette paleta
pane painel
Paste Anexar
Pause Pausa
pointer indicador
pointing device dispositivo de indicação




English Term Brazilian Portuguese Term
pop-up menu menu sobreposto
Print Imprimir
Product information Informações do produto
progress indicator indicador de processamento
push button botão de comando
radio button botão de opção
Redo Refazer
Reflection Reflexo
Refresh Atualizar
Refresh now Atualizar imediatamente
Rename Redenominar
Reset Restabelecer
Restore Restaurar
restore button botão de restaurar
Resume Prosseguir
Retry Tentar novamente
Save Salvar
Save as Salvar como
screen tela
scroll bar barra de deslocamento
scroll box caixa de deslocamento
select selecionar
Select all Selecionar todos
Selected Selecionado
selection button botão de seleção
selection cursor cursor de seleção
Settings Configuração
shortcut key tecla de atalho
Short menus Menus reduzidos
Size Tamanho
slider barra de rolagem
slider arm caixa de rolagem
slider button botão de rolagem
Sort Classificar
spin button botão giratório
Split Dividir
split box caixa de dividir
status area área de status
Stop Interromper
system menu menu do sistema
system-menu symbol símbolo de menu do sistema
tabbed-divider page página divisória
text cursor cursor de texto
title bar barra de título
tool palette paleta de ferramenta
Tutorial Guia
Undo Desfazer
Using help Usando o auxílio
View Ver
window janela
Windows Janelas
Window list Lista de janelas
window title título de janela
work area área de trabalho
workplace local de trabalho

E.3 Chinese

E.4 Danish




English Term Danish Term
action funktion
active window aktivt vindue
Apply Aktivér
border ramme
button knap
Cancel Annullér
cascaded menu undermenu
cascading choice punkt med undermenu
check box afkrydsningsfelt
check mark hak
choice valgmulighed
chord trykke samtidigt
Clear Ryd
click klikke
clipboard udklipsholder
Close Luk
container opbevaringssted
contextual help specifik hjælp
Continue Fortsæt
Copy Kopiér
Create Opret
cursor markør
Cut Klip
Delete Slet
Delete folder Makuleringsfolder
Deselect all Ophæv markering af alle
dialog dialog
direct manipulation direkte manipulering
directory bibliotek
do-not pointer forbudsmarkør
double-click dobbeltklikke
drag trække
drag and drop trække og placere
Edit Redigér
emphasis fremhævning
entry field indtastningsfelt
field felt
field prompt ledetekst
File Fil
Find Søg
folder folder




English Term Danish Term
Full menus Hele menuer
General help Generel hjælp
group heading gruppeoverskrift
Help Hjælp
Help index Stikord
Hide Skjul
I-beam pointer I-markør
icon ikon
inactive window ikke-aktivt vindue
Include Inkludér
information area informationsområde
Keys help Taster
list button oversigtsknap
manipulation button manipuleringsknap
Maximize Maksimér
maximize button maksimérknap
menu menu
menu bar menulinie
menu-bar choice punkt på menulinien
menu button menuknap
menu choice menupunkt
message meddelelse
Minimize Minimér
minimize button minimérknap
mouse mus
mouse button museknap
Move Flyt
New Ny
notebook notesbog
object objekt
Off Deaktiveret
OK OK
On Aktiveret
Open Åbn
Open as Åbn som
Options Tilpasning
palette palet
pane delvindue
Paste Klistre
Pause Pause
pointer pilmarkør
pointing device pegeudstyr
pop-up menu pop-op-menu
Print Udskriv
Product information Produktinformation
progress indicator statusindikator
push button trykknap
radio button valgknap
Redo Fortryd igen
Reflection Afspejling
Refresh Opfrisk
Refresh now Opfrisk nu
Rename Nyt navn
Reset Reset
Restore Gendan
restore button gendanknap
Resume Genoptag
Retry Prøv igen
Save Gem
Save as Gem som
screen skærm
scroll bar bladringsfelt
scroll box bladringsboks
select vælge, markere
Select all Markér alle
Selected Markerede objekter
selection button valgknap
selection cursor valgmarkør
Settings Indstillinger
shortcut key genvejstast
Short menus Korte menuer
Size Tilpas størrelse
slider skala
slider arm skyder
slider button finindstillingsknap
Sort Sortér
spin button bladringsknap
Split Opdel
split box opdelingsboks
status area statusområde
Stop Stop
system menu systemmenu
system-menu symbol symbol for systemmenu
tabbed-divider page skilleblad
text cursor tekstmarkør


English Term Danish Term
title bar overskriftslinie
tool palette redskabspalet
Tutorial Øveprogram
Undo Fortryd
Using help Brug af hjælp
View Vis
window vindue
Windows Vinduer
Window list Vinduesoversigt
window title vinduesnavn
work area arbejdsområde
workplace arbejdsplads

E.5 Dutch




English Term Dutch Term
action actie
active window werkvenster
Apply Aanbrengen
border kader
button knop (1); knop (2); symbool (3)
Cancel Annuleren
cascaded menu vervolgmenu
cascading choice optie met vervolgmenu
check box aankruisvakje
check mark vinkje
choice optie
chord combinatieklik
Clear Verwijderen
click klikken
clipboard klembord
Close Sluiten
container opbergplaats
contextual help specifieke Help
Continue Doorgaan
Copy Kopiëren
Create Maken
cursor cursor
Cut Knippen
Delete Wissen
Delete Folder Wismap
Deselect all Alle selecties opheffen
dialog dialoog
direct manipulation rechtstreekse actie
directory directory
do-not pointer verbodsaanwijzer
double-click dubbelklikken
drag slepen
drag and drop slepen en neerzetten
Edit Bewerken
emphasis accentuering
entry field invoerveld
field veld
field prompt aanwijzing
File Bestand
Find Zoeken




English Term Dutch Term
folder map
Full menus Volledige menu´s
General help Algemene Help
group heading groepskop
Help Help
Help index Help-index
Hide Verbergen
I-beam pointer invoegsymbool
icon pictogram
inactive window achtergrondvenster
Include Opnemen
information area informatiegebied
Keys help Help bij toetsen
list button lijstsymbool
manipulation button actieknop
Maximize Maximumvenster
maximize button symbool Maximumvenster
menu menu
menu bar menubalk
menu-bar choice menubalk-optie
menu button menuknop
menu choice menu-optie
message bericht
Minimize Pictogram
minimize button symbool Pictogram
mouse muis
mouse button muisknop
Move Verplaatsen
New Nieuw
notebook notitieboek
object object
Off Uit
OK OK
On Aan
Open Openen
Open as Openen als
Options Opties
palette palet
pane deelvenster
Paste Plakken
Pause Onderbreken
pointer aanwijzer




English Term Dutch Term
pointing device aanwijsapparaat
pop-up menu voorgrondmenu
Print Afdrukken
Product information Info
progress indicator voortgangsindicatie
push button opdrachtknop
radio button keuzerondje
Redo Herstellen
reflection reflectie
Refresh Vernieuwen
Refresh now Nu vernieuwen
Rename Naam wijzigen
Reset Beginwaarde; Beginwaarden
Restore Vorig formaat
restore button symbool Vorig formaat
Resume Doorgaan
Retry Herhalen
Save Opslaan
Save as Opslaan als
screen beeldscherm
scroll bar schuifbalk
scroll box schuifblokje
select selecteren
Select all Alles selecteren
Selected Geselecteerd
selection button selectieknop
selection cursor selectiecursor
Settings Instellingen
shortcut key sneltoets
Short menus Beknopte menu´s
Size Formaat wijzigen
slider schuifregelaar
slider arm schuifarm
slider button regelknop
Sort Sorteren
spin button ringveldknop
Split Splitsen
split box splitsblokje
status area statusgebied
Stop Stoppen
system menu systeemmenu
system-menu symbol symbool Systeemmenu
tabbed-divider page tabblad
text cursor tekstcursor
title bar titelbalk
tool palette werkpalet
Tutorial Zelfstudie
Undo Ongedaan maken
Using help Help gebruiken
View Beeld
window venster
Windows Vensters
Window list Taakoverzicht
window title venstertitel
work area werkgebied
workplace werkplek

E.6 Finnish




English Term Finnish Term
action toiminto
active window actiivinen ikkuna
Apply Aktivointi
border kehys,reuna
button painike, nappi
Cancel Peruutus
cascaded menu limittyvä valikko
cascading choice limitysvalinta
check box valintaruutu
check mark valintamerkki
choice valinta, vaihtoehto
chord yhdistelmänapsautus
Clear Tyhjennys
click napsauttaa, napsautus
clipboard leikepöytä
Close Sulkeminen
container säilö
contextual help kohdeohje
Continue Jatko
Copy Kopiointi
Create Luonti
cursor kohdistin
Cut Leikkaus
Delete Poisto
Delete Folder Kansion poisto
Deselect all Valintojen peruutus
dialog keskustelu, valintaikkuna
direct manipulation suorakäsittely
directory hakemisto
do-not pointer kielto-osoitin
double-click napsauttaa kahdesti,
kaksoisnapsautus
drag vetäminen, veto
drag and drop veto ja pudotus
Edit Muokkaus
emphasis korostus
entry field syöttökenttä
field kenttä
field prompt kentän selite
File Tiedosto
Find Etsintä




English Term Finnish Term
folder kansio
Full menus Pitkät valikot
General help Yleisohje
group heading ryhmäotsikko
Help Ohje
Help index Ohjehakemisto
Hide Piilotus
I-beam pointer I-osoitin
icon kuvake
inactive window passiivinen ikkuna
Include Sisältö, sisällytys
information area ilmoitusalue
Keys help Näppäinohje
list button luettelopainike
manipulation button käsittelypainike
Maximize Suurennus
maximize button suurennuspainike
menu valikko
menu bar valikkorivi
menu-bar choice valikkorivin vaihtoehto
menu button valikkopainike
menu choice valikon vaihtoehto
message sanoma
Minimize Pienennys
minimize button pienennyspainike
mouse hiiri
mouse button hiiren painike
Move Siirto
New Uusi
notebook muistikirja
object objekti
Off Ei käytössä
OK OK
On Käytössä
Open Avaus
Open as Avauksen valinta
Options Muut valinnat, asetukset
palette valikoima
pane ruutu
Paste Littäminen
Pause Keskeytys
pointer osoitin




English Term Finnish Term
pointing device paikannuslaite
pop-up menu kohovalikko
Print Tulostus (kirjoittimella)
Product information Tietoja ohjelmasta
progress indicator tilanneilmaisin
push button painike
radio button valintanappi
Redo Uusinta
reflection heijastus, heijaste
Refresh Verestys
Refresh now Verestys nyt
Rename Nimeäminen
Reset Palautus
Restore Palautus
restore button palautuspainike
Resume Jatko
Retry Uusinta
Save Tallennus
Save as Tallennus nimellä
screen kuvaruutu
scroll bar vierityspalkki
scroll box vieritysruutu
select valita, valinta
Select all Kaikkien valinta
Selected Valitut
selection button valintapainike
selection cursor valintakohdistin
Settings Asetukset
shortcut key pikanäppäin
Short menus Lyhyet valikot
Size Koon muutto
slider liukusäädin
slider arm liukuruutu
slider button liukupainike
Sort Lajittelu
spin button selauspainike
Split Jaettu ikkuna
split box jakoruutu
status area tilakenttä
Stop Lopetus
system menu ohjausvalikko
system-menu symbol ohjausvalikon symboli
tabbed-divider page välilehti
text cursor tekstikohdistin
title bar otsikkorivi
tool palette työkaluvalikoima
Tutorial Opetusohjelma
Undo Kumous
Using help Ohjeiden käyttö
View Näyttö, esitystapa
window ikkuna
Window list Ikkunaluettelo
Windows Ikkunat
window title ikkunan otsikko
work area työalue
workplace työpöytä

E.7 French and French (Canadian)




English Term French Term
action action
active window fenêtre active
Apply Validation
border cadre
button bouton
Cancel Annulation
cascaded menu menu en cascade
cascading choice option en cascade
check box case à cocher
check mark marque
choice option
chord clic simultané
Clear Effacement
click clic
clipboard presse-papiers
Close Fermeture
container contenant
contextual help aide contextuelle
Continue Continuer
Copy Copie
Create Création
cursor curseur
Cut Couper
Delete Suppression
Delete folder Dossier suppression
Deselect all Désélecter tout
dialog dialogue
direct manipulation manipulation directe
directory répertoire
do-not pointer panneau d'interdiction
double-click cliquer deux fois
drag faire glisser
drag and drop amener
Edit Édition
emphasis mise en évidence
entry field zone d'entrée
field zone
field prompt indicatif de zone
File Fichier
Find Recherche
folder dossier




English Term French Term
Full menus Menus complets
General help Aide générale
group heading en-tête de groupe
Help Aide
Help index Index d'aide
Hide Cacher
I-beam pointer pointeur en I
icon icône
inactive window fenêtre inactive
Include Inclusion
information area zone d'information
Keys help Aide sur les touches
list button bouton de listage
manipulation button bouton de manipulation
Maximize Agrandissement
maximize button bouton d'agrandissement
menu menu
menu bar barre de menus
menu-bar choice option de barre de menus
menu button bouton de menu
menu choice option de menu
message message
Minimize Réduction
minimize button bouton de réduction
mouse souris
mouse button bouton de la souris
Move Déplacement
New Nouveau
notebook bloc-notes
object objet
Off Hors fonction
OK OK
On En fonction
Open Ouvrir
Open as Ouvrir et présenter
Options Options
palette palette
pane sous-fenêtre
Paste Coller
Pause Pause
pointer pointeur
pointing device périphérique de pointage


English Term French Term
pop-up menu incrustation
Print Impression
Product information Infos produit
progress indicator indicateur de déroulement
push button plaquette
radio button pastille
Redo Refaire
reflection double
Refresh Régénération
Refresh now Régénération immédiate
Rename Renommer
Reset Réinitialisation
Restore Restauration
restore button bouton de restauration
Resume Reprendre
Retry Reprise
Save Sauvegarde
Save as Sauvegarde en
screen écran
scroll bar barre de défilement
scroll box case de défilement
select sélection
Select all Sélecter tout
Selected Objets sélectés
selection button bouton de sélection
selection cursor curseur de sélection
Settings Paramètres
Short menus Menus courts
shortcut key raccourci-clavier
Size Dimensionnement
slider règle
slider arm index de la règle
slider button bouton de la règle
Sort Tri
spin button sélecteur rotatif
Split Partager
split box marque de partage
status area zone d'état
Stop Stop
system menu menu système
system-menu symbol symbole de menu système
tabbed-divider page intercalaire
text cursor curseur texte
title bar barre de titre
tool palette palette d'outils
Tutorial Tutoriel
Undo Défaire
Using help Utiliser l'aide
View Visualisation
window fenêtre
Windows Fenêtres
Window list Liste de fenêtres
window title titre de fenêtre
work area zone de travail
workplace bureau électronique

E.8 German




The German translations may change in order to be kept up to date.


English Term German Term
action Aktion
active window aktives Fenster
Apply Anwenden
border Rahmen
button Taste, Knopf
Cancel Abbrechen
cascaded menu Untermenüfenster
cascading choice weiterführende Auswahl
check box Markierungsfeld
check mark Haken
choice Auswahl
chord gleichzeitiges Klicken
Clear Löschen
click klicken
clipboard Zwischenablage
Close Schließen
container Behälter
contextual help Kontexthilfe
Continue Weiter
Copy Kopieren
Create Erstellen
cursor Cursor
Cut Trennen
Delete Löschen
Delete Folder Ordner löschen
Deselect all Auswahl zurücknehmen
dialog Dialog
direct manipulation direkte Manipulation
directory Verzeichnis
do-not pointer Verbotssymbol
double-click doppelt klicken
drag ziehen
drag and drop ziehen und übergeben
Edit Editieren
emphasis Hervorhebung
entry field Eingabefeld
field Feld
field prompt Feldbezeichnung
File Datei
Find Suchen




English Term German Term
folder Ordner
Full menus Gesamtmenüs
General help Allgemeine Hilfe
group heading Gruppenüberschrift
Help Hilfe
Help index Hilfeindex
Hide Verdecken
I-beam pointer Textcursor
icon Symbol
inactive window inaktives Fenster
Include Anzeigeoptionen
information area Informationsbereich
Keys help Hilfe für Tasten
list button Listenknopf
manipulation button Manipulationstaste
Maximize maximale Größe
maximize button Knopf für maximale Größe
menu Menü
menu bar Menüauswahl
menu-bar choice Menüleistenauswahl
menu button Menüknopf
menu choice Menüauswahl
message Nachricht
Minimize Symbolgröße
minimize button Knopf für Symbolgröße
mouse Maus
mouse button Maustaste
Move Verschieben
New Neu
notebook Notizbuch
object Objekt
Off Aus
OK OK
On Ein
Open Öffnen
Open as Öffnen als
Options Optionen
palette Palette
pane Teilfenster
Paste Einfügen
pointer Zeiger
pointing device Zeigereinheit




English Term German Term
pop-up menu Dialogmenü
Print Drucken
Product information Produktinformation
progress indicator Statusanzeigefeld
push button Druckknopf
radio button Radioknopf
Redo Widerruf zurücknehmen
reflection Gespiegeltes Symbol
Refresh Neuanzeige
Refresh now Neuanzeige sofort
Rename Umbenennen
Reset Zurücksetzen
Restore Wiederherstellen
restore button Knopf für Wiederherstellung
Resume Wiederaufnehmen
Retry Wiederholen
Save Sichern
Save as Sichern als
screen Bildschirm
scroll bar Schiebeleiste
scroll box Schiebefeld
select auswählen
Select all Alles auswählen
Selected Ausgewählt
selection button Auswahltaste
selection cursor Auswahlcursor
Settings Einstellungen
shortcut key Direktaufruf
Short menus Kurzmenüs
Size Größe ändern
slider Schiebeleiste
slider arm Schiebefeld
slider button Schiebepfeil
Sort Sortieren
spin button Drehknopf
Split Geteiltes Fenster
split box Trennmarke
status area Statusbereich
Stop Stoppen
system menu Systemmenü
system-menu symbol Systemmenüsymbol
tabbed-divider page Registerblatt
text cursor Textcursor
title bar Titelleiste
tool palette Funktionspalette
Tutorial Lerntext
Undo Widerrufen
Using help Hilfe für Hilfe
View Anzeige
window Fenster
Windows Fenster
Window list Fensterliste
window title Fenstertitel
work area Arbeitsbereich
workplace Arbeitsoberfläche

E.9 Hebrew




Two terms have been added for the bidirectional CUA guidelines.


direction the order of a sequence of objects which can be LTR or RTL.
 For instance, the typing direction (order of the generated
 characters) may be RTL or LTR.


orientation attribute of an object which can be LTR or RTL as defined
 by the order of its subordinate elements. For instance, a
 field has RTL orientation if its characters are ordered
 from right to left.

E.10 Italian




English Term Italian Term
action azione
active window finestra attiva
Apply Applicare
border bordo
button tastino
Cancel Annullare
cascaded menu menu a cascata
cascading choice scelta a cascata
check box casella di spunta
check mark segno di spunta
choice scelta
chord accordo
Clear Pulire
click fare click
clipboard notes
Close Chiudere
container contenitore
contextual help aiuto specifico
Continue Continuare
Copy Copiare
Create Creare
cursor cursore
Cut Ritagliare
Delete Cancellare
Delete Folder Cancellare cartella
Deselect all Annullare selezioni
dialog dialogo
direct manipulation manipolazione diretta
directory indirizzario
do-not pointer puntatore di divieto
double-click fare doppio click
drag trascinare
drag and drop trascinare e rilasciare
Edit Editare
emphasis enfasi
entry field campo di immissione
field campo
field prompt richiesta per il campo
File File
Find Cercare
folder cartella




English Term Italian Term
Full menus Menu completi
General help Aiuto generale
group heading intestazione del gruppo
Help Aiuto
Help index Indice analitico dell´aiuto
Hide Nascondere
I-beam pointer puntatore a I
icon icona
inactive window finestra non attiva
Include Includere
information area area di informazione
Keys help Aiuto per tasti funzione
list button pulsante per lista
manipulation button tasto per manipolazione
Maximize Ingrandire al massimo
maximize button pulsante per ingrandimento al
massimo
menu menu
menu bar barra menu
menu-bar choice scelta della barra menu
menu button tasto di menu
menu choice scelta del menu
message messaggio
Minimize ridurre al minimo
minimize button pulsante per riduzione al minimo
mouse mouse
mouse button tastino del mouse
Move Spostare
New Nuovo
notebook taccuino
object oggetto
Off Spento
OK OK
On Acceso
Open Aprire
Open as Aprire come
Options Opzioni
palette tavolozza
pane riquadro di finestra
Paste Attaccare
Pause Pausa
pointer puntatore
pointing device dispositivo di puntamento
pop-up menu menu concatenato
Print Stampare
Product information Informazioni sul prodotto
progress indicator indicatore di avanzamento
push button pulsante
radio button pallino
Redo Rifare
reflection riflessione
Refresh Aggiornamento
Refresh now Aggiornare ora
Rename Rinominare
Reset Reimpostare
Restore Ripristinare
restore button pulsante di ripristino
Resume Riprendere
Retry Riprovare
Save Salvare
Save as Salvare con nome
screen schermo
scroll bar barra di scorrimento
scroll box indicatore di posizione
select selezionare
Select all Selezionare tutto
Selected Selezionato
selection button pulsante di selezione
selection cursor cursore di selezione
Settings Impostazioni
shortcut key tasto di accesso rapido
Short menus Menu sintetici
Size Dimensione
slider slitta
slider arm indicatore della slitta
slider button pulsante della slitta
Sort Ordinare
spin button pulsante per rotazione
Split Dividere
split box cassella di divisione
status area area di stato
Stop Arrestare
system menu menu di sistema




English Term Italian Term
system-menu symbol simbolo del menu di sistema
tabbed-divider page separatore pagine
text cursor cursore del testo
title bar barra del titolo
tool palette tavola degli strumenti
Tutorial Supporto didattico
Undo Regressione
Using help Utilizzo dell´aiuto
View Visualizzare
window finestra
Window list Elenco finestre
Windows Finestre
window title titolo di finestra
work area area di lavoro
workplace postazione di lavoro

E.11 Japanese

E.12 Korean

E.13 Norwegian




English Term Norwegian Term
action handling
active window aktivt vindu
Apply Prøve
border ramme
button knapp
Cancel Avbryt
cascaded menu undermeny
cascading choice valg med undermeny
check box valgrute
check mark hake
choice valg
chord klikke samtidig
Clear Fjerne
click klikke
clipboard utklippstavle
Close Lukke
container container
contextual help spesifikk hjelp
Continue Fortsett
Copy Kopiere
Create Opprette
cursor markør
Cut Klippe ut
Delete Slette
Delete folder Sletting
Deselect all Oppheve valg av alle
dialog dialog
direct manipulation direkte manipulering
directory katalog
do-not pointer forbudsskilt
double-click dobbeltklikke
drag dra
drag and drop dra og slippe
Edit Redigere
emphasis utheving
entry field inndatafelt
field felt
field prompt ledetekst
File Fil
Find Søke
folder mappe




English Term Norwegian Term
Full menus Fullstendige menyer
General help Generell hjelp
group heading gruppeoverskrift
Help Hjelp
Help index Stikkord
Hide Skjule
I-beam pointer skrivepeker
icon ikon
inactive window passivt vindu
Include Ta med
information area informasjonsområde
Keys help Tasthjelp
list button listeknapp
manipulation button manipuleringsknapp
Maximize Maksimere
maximize button maksimeringsknapp
menu meny
menu bar handlingslinje
menu-bar choice valg på handlingslinjen
menu button menyknapp
menu choice menyvalg
message melding
Minimize Minimere
minimize button minimeringsknapp
mouse mus
mouse button museknapp
Move Flytte
New Ny / Nytt
notebook notisbok
object objekt
Off Av
OK Enter
On På
Open Åpne
Open as Åpne som
Options Alternativer
palette palett
pane vindussegment
Paste Lime inn
Pause Pause
pointer peker
pointing device pekeenhet




English Term Norwegian Term
pop-up menu tilleggsmeny
Print Skrive ut
Product information Om programmet...
progress indicator statusindikator
push button skjermtast
radio button valgknapp
Redo Gjøre om
reflection speilbilde
Refresh Fornye
Refresh now Fornye nå
Rename Endre navn
Reset Tilbakestill
Restore Gjenopprette
restore button gjenopprettingsknapp
Resume Gjenoppta
Retry Prøv igjen
Save Lagre
Save as Lagre som
screen skjerm
scroll bar blafelt
scroll box posisjonsviser
select velge
Select all Velge alle
Selected Valgte
selection button valgknapp
selection cursor valgmarkør
Settings Innstillinger
shortcut key direktetast
Short menus Korte menyer
Size Endre størrelse
slider skala
slider arm skalaindikator
slider button skalaknapp
Sort Sortere
spin button blaknapp
Split Dele
split box delemerke
status area statusområde
Stop Stopp
system menu systemmeny
system-menu symbol systemmeny-symbol
tabbed-divider page skilleark
text cursor tekstmarkør
title bar tittellinje
tool palette verktøypalett
Tutorial Opplæring
Undo Oppheve
Using help Bruke hjelp
View Se på
window vindu
Window list Vindusoversikt
Windows Vinduer
window title vindustittel
work area arbeidsområde
workplace arbeidsvindu

E.14 Portuguese




English Term Portuguese Term
action acção
active window janela ativa
Apply Aplicar
border contorno
button botão; selector
Cancel Cancelar
cascaded menu submenu
cascading choice opção com submenu
check box selector de confirmação
check mark marca de confirmação
choice opção
chord premir simultaneamente
Clear Limpar
click fazer clique
clipboard área de transição
Close Fechar
container contentor
contextual help ajuda contextual
Continue Continuar
Copy Copiar
Create Criar
cursor cursor
Cut Cortar
Delete Eliminar
Delete Folder Eliminar Arquivador
Deselect all Desmarcar tudo
dialog diálogo
direct manipulation manipulação directa
directory directório
do-not pointer indicador de proibição
double-click fazer duplo clique
drag arrastar
drag and drop arrastar e largar
Edit Editar
emphasis realce
entry field campo de entrada
field campo
field prompt identificação do campo
File Ficheiro
Find Encontrar
folder arquivador




English Term Portuguese Term
Full menus Menus completos
General help Ajuda geral
group heading título do grupo
Help Ajuda
Help index Índice da Ajuda
Hide Ocultar
I-beam pointer indicador em I
icon ícone
inactive window janela inativa
Include Incluir
information area área de informações
Keys help Ajuda para teclas
list button botão de lista
manipulation button botão de manipulação
Maximize Maximizar
maximize button botão de maximização
menu menu
menu bar barra de acções
menu-bar choice opção da barra de acções
menu button botão de menu
menu choice opção de menu
message mensagem
Minimize Minimizar
minimize button botão de minimização
mouse button botão do rato
mouse rato
Move Mover
New Novo
notebook bloco de notas
object objecto
Off Inactivo
OK OK
On Activo
Open Abrir
Open as Abrir como
Options Opções
palette paleta
pane área da janela
Paste Colar
Pause Pausa
pointer indicador
pointing device dispositivo indicador




English Term Portuguese Term
pop-up menu menu emergente
Print Imprimir
Product information Informação sobre o produto
progress indicator indicador de progressão
push button selector de acção
radio button selector de opção
Redo Refazer
reflection duplicação
Refresh Actualizar
Refresh now Atualizar agora
Rename Mudar o nome
Reset Repor
Restore Restaurar
restore button botão de restauro
Resume Retomar
Retry Repetir
Save Guardar
Save as Guardar como
screen écran
scroll bar barra de deslocamento
scroll box selector de deslocamento
select seleccionar
Select all Seleccionar tudo
Selected Seleccionados
selection button botão de selecção
selection cursor cursor de selecção
Settings Definições
shortcut key tecla de acção directa
Short menus Menus resumidos
Size Dimensionar
slider escala
slider arm selector de escala
slider button botão de escala
Sort Ordenar
spin button selector rotativo
Split Dividir
split box selector de divisão
status area área de estado
Stop Parar
system menu menu do sistema
system-menu symbol símbolo do menu do sistema
tabbed-divider page página do bloco
text cursor cursor de texto
title bar barra do título
tool palette paleta de funções
Tutorial Inciação
Undo Desfazer
Using help Utilizar a Ajuda
View Ver
window janela
Window list Lista
Windows Janelas
window title título da janela
work area área de trabalho
workplace interface de trabalho

E.15 Spanish




English Term Spanish Term
action acción
active window ventana activa
Apply Aplicar
border marco
button botón
Cancel Cancelar
cascaded menu menú en cascada
cascading choice elección de cascada
check box recuadro de selección
check mark marca de selección
choice elección
chord acorde
Clear Limpiar
click pulsar el botón
clipboard área común
Close Cerrar
container contenedor
contextual help ayuda según contexto
Continue Continuar
Copy Copiar
Create Crear
cursor cursor
Cut Cortar
Delete Suprimir
Delete Folder Suprimir Carpeta
Deselect all Anular selecciones
dialog diálogo
direct manipulation manipulación directa
directory directorio
do-not pointer puntero de prohibición
double-click doble pulsación
drag arrastrar
drag and drop arrastrar y soltar
Edit Editar
emphasis énfasis
entry field campo de entrada
field campo
field prompt indicador de campo
File Archivo
Find Encontrar
folder carpeta




English Term Spanish Term
Full menus Menús completos
General help Ayuda general
group heading cabecera de grupo
Help Ayuda
Help index Indice de la ayuda
Hide Ocultar
I-beam pointer indicador en I
icon icono
inactive window ventana inactiva
Include Incluir
information area área de información
Keys help Ayuda para teclas
list button botón de lista
manipulation button botón de manipulación
Maximize Maximizar
maximize button botón de maximizar
menu menú
menu bar barra de menús
menu-bar choice elección de barra de menús
menu button botón de menú
menu choice elección de menú
message mensaje
Minimize Minimizar
minimize button botón de minimizar
mouse ratón
mouse button botón de ratón
Move Mover
New Nuevo
notebook cuaderno
object objeto
Off Desactivar
OK Bien
On Activar
Open Abrir
Open as Abrir como
Options Opciones
palette paleta
pane panel
Paste Pegar
Pause Pausa
pointer puntero
pointing device dispositivo de puntero




English Term Spanish Term
pop-up menu menú emergente
Print Imprimir
Product information Información sobre el producto
progress indicator indicador de progreso
push button pulsador
radio button botón de selección
Redo Rehacer
Reflection Reflejo
Refresh Renovar
Refresh now Renovar ahora
Rename Renombrar
Reset Restablecer
Restore Restaurar
restore button botón de restaurar
Resume Reanudar
Retry Reintentar
Save Guardar
Save as Guardar como
screen pantalla
scroll bar área de desplazamiento
scroll box recuadro de desplazamiento
select seleccionar
Select all Seleccionar todo
Selected Seleccionado
selection button botón de selección
selection cursor cursor de selección
Settings Valores
shortcut key tecla de atajo
Short menus Menús abreviados
Size Tama¦o
slider graduador
slider arm nivel del graduador
slider button botón del graduador
Sort Ordenar
spin button selector cíclico
Split Partir
split box recuadro de partición
status area área de estado
Stop Parar
system menu menú del sistema
system-menu symbol símbolo del menú del sistema
tabbed-divider page página separadora
text cursor cursor de texto
title bar área de título
tool palette paleta de utensilios
Tutorial Guía de Aprendizaje
Undo Deshacer
Using help Utilizar ayuda
View Ver
window ventana
Windows Ventanas
Window list Lista de ventanas
window title Título de la ventana
work area ärea de trabajo
workplace lugar de trabajo

E.16 Swedish




English Term Swedish Term
action åtgärd
active window aktivt fönster
Apply Prova
border ram
button knapp
Cancel Avbryt
cascaded menu undermeny
cascading choice alternativ med undermeny
check box kryssruta
check mark bock
choice alternativ
chord kombinationsklicka
Clear Ta bort
click klicka
clipboard urklipp
Close Stäng
container behållare
contextual help relaterad hjälp
Continue Fortsätt
Copy Kopiera
Create Skapa
cursor markör
Cut Klipp ut
Delete Ta bort
Delete folder Borttagsmapp
Deselect all Avmarkera alla
dialog dialog
direct manipulation direkthantering
directory katalog
do-not pointer stopptecken
double-click dubbelklicka
drag dra
drag and drop dra och släpp
Edit Redigera
emphasis framhävning
entry field indatafält
field fält
field prompt ledtext
File Arkiv
Find Sök
folder mapp




English Term Swedish Term
Full menus Långa menyer
General help Allmän hjälp
group heading grupprubrik
Help Hjälp
Help index Hjälpindex
Hide Göm
I-beam pointer textmarkör
icon ikon
inactive window inaktivt fönster
Include Inkludera
information area informationsfält
Keys help Tangentfunktioner
list button listknapp
manipulation button direkthanteringsknapp
Maximize Maximera
maximize button maximeringsknapp
menu meny
menu bar menyrad
menu-bar choice alternativ på menyraden
menu button menyknapp
menu choice menyalternativ
message meddelande
Minimize Minimera
minimize button minimeringsknapp
mouse mus
mouse button musknapp
Move Flytta
New Ny, Nytt
notebook anteckningar
object objekt
Off Av
OK OK
On På
Open Öppna
Open as Öppna som
Options Inställningar
palette palett
pane ruta
Paste Klistra in
Pause Paus
pointer pekare
pointing device pekdon




English Term Swedish Term
pop-up menu tilläggsmeny
Print Skriv ut
Product information Produktinformation
progress indicator statusindikator
push button (kommando)knapp
radio button radioknapp
Redo Upphäv ångra
reflection reflex
Refresh Förnya
Refresh now Förnya nu
Rename Döp om
Reset Återställ
Restore Återställ
restore button återställningsknapp
Resume Fortsätt
Retry Försök igen
Save Lagra
Save as Lagra som
screen skärm
scroll bar bläddringsstapel
scroll box bläddringsruta
select markera
Select all Markera alla
Selected Markerade objekt
selection button (val)knapp
selection cursor (val)markör
Settings Inställningar
shortcut key kortkommando
Short menus Korta menyer
Size Ändra storlek
slider skjutreglage
slider arm skjutreglage
slider button (inställnings)knapp
Sort Sortera
spin button (bläddrings)knapp
Split Dela
split box delningsruta
status area statusfält
Stop Stopp
system menu systemmeny
system-menu symbol systemmenysymbol
tabbed-divider page registerblad
text cursor textmarkör
title bar rubrikrad
tool palette verktygspalett
Tutorial Självstudiekurs
Undo Ångra
Using help Om hjälpfunktionen
View Vy, Visa
window fönster
Window list Lista
Windows Fönster
window title fönsterrubrik
work area arbetsfält
workplace arbetsplats

F.0 Appendix F. Documenting the CUA User Interface in Products


The following information is provided to help you document your product's
user interface and associated information. The following table contains
both technical and user terms. The user terms are defined and suggestions
are given on how to explain the technical concepts to users.




Subtopics:

F.1 General Terminology Guidelines




The terminology used in your product should be suited to the task domain
of the product's users. For example, if the primary users of a product
are programmers, use terms programmers are familiar with and understand;
similarly, if the primary users are members of the medical community or
the insurance community, use terms those users will expect and understand.


If your product has a particular implementation of a concept that you want
to include in the definition, you may append that information to the end
of the definition. Precede the appended information with a phrase such
as: In myproduct,....


Predefined user-interface terminology (terms that appear in the table in
bold text) must be used for all users. Synonyms for these terms are not
 allowed.

F.2 How to Use This Table




Use the terms and their definitions in your product documentation just as
they appear in the following table. Some of the terms that appear as
choices on the user interface can either be action or routing choices. If
they are used by your product as routing choices, append either an
ellipsis or a right-pointing arrow to the term as appropriate.


Some of the technical terms in this table do not have equivalent user
terms. To help you explain to users the concepts represented by these
technical terms, suggestions are given in the right-hand column of the
table. The documentation suggestions appear in italic text to distinguish
 them from term definitions.


Other technical terms in the table have equivalent user terms; for
example, look at the term "action message" in the table. In the
right-hand column, you are referred to "message" for the definition;
"message" is the user equivalent of "action message."


Note: Predefined capitalization rules have been applied to the
 user-interface terminology in the following table. Terms in bold text
 appear in CUA-conforming user interfaces as choices in menus, labels on
 push buttons, and labels associated with icons.

 ________________________________________________________________________ 
| Figure 227. Technical Terms with Equivalent User Terms and User |
| Definitions |
|____________ ______________ ____________________________________________|
| | | |
| Technical | User Term | User Definition or Documentation |
 | Term | | Suggestion |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | action | action | An action performs a task on an object. A |
 | | | user requests actions by selecting a |
 | | | choice from a menu, interacting with |
 | | | buttons in a window, or by manipulating |
 | | | objects directly. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | action | | See message. |
 | message | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | active | active | The window that can receive input from the |
 | window | window | keyboard. It is distinguishable by the |
 | | | unique color of its title bar and window |
 | | | border. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Apply | Apply | A push button that carries out the |
 | | | selected choices in a window without |
 | | | closing the window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | audible | | Use "beep" or describe the sound. |
 | feedback | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | automatic | | A selection technique in which moving the |
 | selection | | keyboard cursor automatically changes the |
 | | | current selection. A user does not have |
 | | | to identify a choice or object to select |
 | | | it, selection occurs automatically as the |
 | | | cursor moves among the choices or objects. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | border | border | A visual indication of the boundaries of a |
 | | | window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | button | button | (1) A mechanism on a pointing device, |
 | | | such as a mouse, used to request or |
 | | | initiate an action or a process. (2) A |
 | | | graphical device that identifies a choice. |
 | | | (3) A graphical mechanism that, when |
 | | | selected, performs a visible action. For |
 | | | example, when a user clicks on a list |
 | | | button, a list of choices appears. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Cancel | Cancel | A push button that removes a window |
 | | | without applying any changes made in that |
 | | | window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | cascaded | cascaded | A menu that appears from, and contains |
 | menu | menu | choices related to, a cascading choice in |
 | | | another menu. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | cascading | cascading | A choice on a menu that, when selected, |
 | choice | choice | presents another menu with additional |
 | | | related choices. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | check box | check box | A square box with associated text that |
 | | | represents a choice. When a user selects |
 | | | the choice, the check box is filled to |
 | | | indicate that the choice is selected. The |
 | | | user can clear the check box by selecting |
 | | | the choice again, thereby deselecting the |
 | | | choice. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | check mark | check mark | A character (&check.) that indicates that |
 | | | a choice is active. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | choice | choice | Graphics or text that a user can select to |
 | | | modify or manipulate an object. Choices |
 | | | appear in menus, on push buttons, and in |
 | | | fields as in, for example, a field of |
 | | | radio buttons. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | chord | chord | To press more than one button on a |
 | | | pointing device while the pointer is |
 | | | within the limits that the user has |
 | | | specified for the operating environment. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Clear | Clear | A choice that removes a selected object |
 | | | and leaves the visible space that it |
 | | | occupied. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | click | click | To press and release a button on a |
 | | | pointing device without moving the pointer |
 | | | off of the object or choice. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | clipboard | clipboard | An area of storage provided by the system |
 | | | to hold data temporarily. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Close | Close | A choice that removes a window and all of |
 | | | the windows associated with it from the |
 | | | workplace. For example, if a user is |
 | | | performing a task in a window and a |
 | | | message appears, or the user asks for |
 | | | help, both the message and the help |
 | | | windows disappear when the user closes the |
 | | | original window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | combination| | Refer to the list of objects or choices |
 | box | | that a user can access by selecting the |
 | | | list button, and the entry field into |
 | | | which a user can type directly. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | container | container | A visual user-interface component whose |
 | | | specific purpose is to hold objects. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | contextual | contextual | Help information about the specific choice |
 | help | help | or object that the cursor is on. The help |
 | | | is contextual because it provides |
 | | | information about the item in its current |
 | | | context. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | control | | Name the control if it is a user term; |
 | | | otherwise describe it, its various parts, |
 | | | or tell the user how to interact with it. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Copy | Copy | A choice that places a copy of a selected |
 | | | object onto the clipboard. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Create | Create | An action choice that produces a new |
 | | | object, similar to a selected object, and |
 | | | places it on the clipboard. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | current-set|ing | A mark, such as a checkmark, an "X" in a |
 | indicator | | check box, or a filled circle in a radio |
 | | | button, that indicates that a choice is |
 | | | currently selected. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | current | | The state of an object or choice, active |
 | state | | or inactive, that allows it to be selected |
 | | | or directly manipulated. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | cursor | cursor | A visible indication of the position where |
 | | | user interaction with the keyboard will |
 | | | appear. The keyboard cursors are the |
 | | | selection cursor and the text cursor. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Cut | Cut | A choice that moves a selected object and |
 | | | places it onto the clipboard. The space |
 | | | it occupied is usually filled by the |
 | | | remaining object or objects in the window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | data | | The movement of data from one object to |
 | transfer | | another by way of the clipboard or by |
 | | | direct manipulation |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Delete | Delete | A choice that removes a selected object. |
 | | | The space it occupied is usually filled by |
 | | | the remaining object or objects in the |
 | | | window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | delete | delete | A folder that holds objects and that will |
 | folder | folder | remove the objects it holds from a user's |
 | | | system. A delete folder could delete |
 | | | objects immediately, or it could allow the |
 | | | user to specify when the objects are to be |
 | | | deleted. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Deselect | Deselect all | A choice that cancels the selection of all |
 | all | | of the objects that have been selected in |
 | | | that window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | default | | Explain to the user that when some action |
 | action | | is taken, such as pressing the Enter key, |
 | | | the default action (describe the emphasis |
 | | | that identifies it) will be performed. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | descriptive| | Text used in addition to a field prompt to |
 | text | | give more information about a field. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | detent | | A point on a slider that represents an |
 | | | exact value to which a user can move the |
 | | | slider arm. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | dialog | dialog | The interaction between a user and a |
 | | | computer. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | dimmed | | Reduced contrast that indicates that a |
 | | | choice or object cannot be selected or |
 | | | directly manipulated. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | direct | direct | Techniques that a user employs to work |
 | manipulatio| manipulation | with objects directly, through a pointing |
 | | | device, or through the objects' context |
 | | | menus. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | directory | directory | A container of files and other |
 | | | directories. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | double-clic| double-click | To press and release a button on a |
 | | | pointing device twice while a pointer is |
 | | | within the limits that the user has |
 | | | specified for the operating environment. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | drag | drag | To use a pointing device to move an |
 | | | object. For example, a user can drag a |
 | | | window border to make it larger. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | drag and | drag and | To directly manipulate an object by moving |
 | drop | drop | it and placing it somewhere else using a |
 | | | pointing device. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | drop-down | | Tell the user how to interact with it; |
 | combination| | refer to the entry field and the list |
 | box | | button. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | drop-down | | Tell the user how to interact with it; |
 | list | | refer to the list of items that are shown |
 | | | when the user clicks on the list button. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Edit | Edit | A choice on a menu bar that provides |
 | | | access to other choices that enable a user |
 | | | to modify data. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | emphasis | emphasis | Highlighting, color change, or other |
 | | | visible indication of the condition of an |
 | | | object or choice and the effect of that |
 | | | condition on a user's ability to interact |
 | | | with that object or choice. Emphasis can |
 | | | also give a user additional information |
 | | | about the state of an object or choice. |
 | | | |
 | | | Note: Describe to the user what the |
 | | | emphasis indicates. For example, that |
 | | | selected-state emphasis shows that a |
 | | | choice or object is selected. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | entry | entry field | An area into which a user types or places |
 | field | | text. Its boundaries are usually |
 | | | indicated. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | extended | | A type of selection usually used for the |
 | selection | | selection of a single object. A user can |
 | | | extend selection to more than one object, |
 | | | if required. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | field | field | An identifiable area in a window. |
 | | | Examples of fields are: an entry field, |
 | | | into which a user can type or place text, |
 | | | and a field of radio button choices, from |
 | | | which a user can select one choice. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | field | field prompt | Text that identifies a field, such as an |
 | prompt | | entry field or a field of check boxes. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | File | File | A choice on a menu bar that provides |
 | | | access to other choices that enable a user |
 | | | to work with the object in the window as a |
 | | | whole. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Find | Find | A choice or push button that initiates a |
 | | | search for an object or within an object |
 | | | displayed in that window. A user can |
 | | | specify the criteria to be used for the |
 | | | search. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | first-lette| | A navigation and selection technique in |
 | navigation | | which users select a choice in a list by |
 | | | typing the first character of the choice |
 | | | they want to select |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | folder | folder | A container used to organize objects. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Full menus | Full menus | A choice that a user selects to see all of |
 | | | the choices available in menus. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | General | General help | A choice that gives a user a brief |
 | help | | overview of each action or task, or both, |
 | | | that a user can perform within a window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | group | group | A heading that identifies a set of related |
 | heading | heading | fields. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Help | Help | A choice that gives a user access to |
 | | | helpful information about objects, |
 | | | choices, tasks, and products. A Help |
 | | | choice can appear on a menu bar or as a |
 | | | push button. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Help index | Help index | A choice on the Help menu that presents an |
 | | | alphabetic listing of help topics for an |
 | | | object or a product. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Hide | Hide | A choice that removes a window and all |
 | | | associated windows from the workplace. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | I-beam | I-beam | A pointer that indicates that the pointer |
 | pointer | pointer | is over an area that can be edited, for |
 | | | example, an entry field. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | icon | icon | A graphical representation of an object, |
 | | | consisting of an image, image background, |
 | | | and a label. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | inactive | inactive | A window that is not receiving keyboard |
 | window | window | input. It can be distinguished from an |
 | | | active window by the difference in its |
 | | | title bar and border colors. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Include | Include | A choice that presents a window in which a |
 | | | user can specify a reduced or expanded set |
 | | | of objects, so that only the objects |
 | | | included in the reduced or expanded set |
 | | | are displayed. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | information| information | A specific part of a window in which |
 | area | area | information about the object or choice |
 | | | that the cursor is on is displayed. The |
 | | | information area can also contain a |
 | | | message about the completion of a process. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | information| | See message. |
 | message | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | initial | | Information that appears in an entry field |
 | value | | when that entry field is first displayed |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | input | | The position, indicated on the screen, |
 | focus | | where a user's interaction with the |
 | | | keyboard will appear. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | in-use | | See emphasis. |
 | emphasis | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Keys help | Keys help | A choice that presents a listing of all |
 | | | the key assignments for an object or a |
 | | | product. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | list box | | A control that contains a list of objects |
 | | | or settings choices that a user can select |
 | | | from. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | list | list button | A button labeled with an underlined |
 | button | | down-arrow that presents a list of valid |
 | | | objects or choices that can be selected |
 | | | for that field. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | manipulatio| manipulation | The button on a pointing device a user |
 | button | button | presses to directly manipulate an object, |
 | | | for example mouse button 2 is the default |
 | | | manipulation button on a two-button mouse. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | marquee | | The rectangle that appears during a |
 | box | | selection technique in which a user |
 | | | selects objects by drawing a box around |
 | | | them with a pointing device. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | marquee | | A technique that a user employs to select |
 | selection | | objects by using a pointing device to draw |
 | | | a box around them. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Maximize | Maximize | A choice that enlarges a window to its |
 | | | largest possible size. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | maximize | maximize | A button in the rightmost part of a title |
 | button | button | bar that a user clicks on to enlarge the |
 | | | window to its largest possible size. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | menu | menu | A list of choices that can be applied to |
 | | | an object. A menu can contain choices |
 | | | that are not available for selection in |
 | | | certain contexts. Those choices are |
 | | | indicated by reduced contrast. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | menu bar | menu bar | The area near the top of a window, below |
 | | | the title bar and above the rest of the |
 | | | window, that contains choices that provide |
 | | | access to other menus. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | menu-bar | menu-bar | A graphical or textual item on a menu bar, |
 | choice | choice | which provides access to menus that |
 | | | contain choices that can be applied to an |
 | | | object. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | menu | menu button | The button on a pointing device that a |
 | button | | user presses to view a pop-up menu |
 | | | associated with an object, for example |
 | | | mouse button 3 is the default menu button |
 | | | on a three-button mouse. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | menu | menu choice | A graphical or textual item on a menu. A |
 | choice | | user selects a menu choice to work with an |
 | | | object in some way. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | message | message | Information not requested by a user but |
 | | | displayed by a product in response to an |
 | | | unexpected event or when something |
 | | | undesirable could occur. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Minimize | Minimize | A choice that reduces a window to its |
 | | | smallest possible size and removes all of |
 | | | the windows associated with that window |
 | | | from the screen. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | minimize | minimize | A button, located next to the rightmost |
 | button | button | button in a title bar, that reduces the |
 | | | window to its smallest possible size and |
 | | | removes all the windows associated with |
 | | | that window from the screen. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | mnemonic | | A selection technique; refer to the |
 | | | "underlined character" or the "character |
 | | | in parentheses" that a user can type to |
 | | | move the cursor to a choice or to select |
 | | | the choice that the cursor is on. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | mouse | mouse | A commonly used pointing device, |
 | | | containing one or more buttons, with which |
 | | | a user can interact with a product or the |
 | | | operating environment. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | mouse | mouse button | A mechanism on a mouse pointing device |
 | button | | used to select objects or choices, |
 | | | initiate actions, or directly manipulate |
 | | | objects. that a user presses to interact |
 | | | with a computer system. The button makes |
 | | | a "clicking" sound when pressed and |
 | | | released. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Move | Move | A choice that moves a window to a |
 | | | different location on the work area. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | multiple-li|eentry field | See entry field. |
 | entry | | |
 | field | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | New | New | A choice that creates another object from |
 | | | an existing object. The new object will |
 | | | appear in the existing window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | notebook | notebook | A graphical representation that resembles |
 | | | a spiral-bound notebook that contains |
 | | | pages separated into sections by tabbed |
 | | | divider-pages. A user can turn the pages |
 | | | of a notebook to move from one section to |
 | | | another. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | object | object | An item that a user can manipulate as a |
 | | | single unit to perform a task. An object |
 | | | can appear as text, an icon, or both. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Off | Off | A choice that appears in the cascaded menu |
 | | | from the Refresh choice. It sets the |
 | | | refresh function to off. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | OK | OK | A push button that accepts the information |
 | | | in a window and closes it. If the window |
 | | | contains changed information, those |
 | | | changes are applied before the window is |
 | | | closed. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | On | On | A choice that appears in a cascaded menu |
 | | | from the Refresh choice. It immediately |
 | | | refreshes the view in a window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Open | Open | A choice that leads to a window in which |
 | | | users can select the object they want to |
 | | | open. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Open as | Open as | A cascading choice that leads to a |
 | | | cascaded menu which contains choices that |
 | | | a user can select to determine how an |
 | | | object is presented. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Options | Options | A choice on a menu bar that provides |
 | | | access to other choices that enable a user |
 | | | to customize a product or application. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | palette | palette | A set of mutually exclusive, typically |
 | | | graphical, choices. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | pane | pane | One of the separate areas in a split |
 | | | window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Paste | Paste | A choice that places the contents of the |
 | | | clipboard at the current cursor position. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | pointer | pointer | A symbol, usually in the shape of an |
 | | | arrow, that a user can move with a |
 | | | pointing device. Users place the pointer |
 | | | over objects they want to work with. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | pointing | pointing | A device, such as a mouse, trackball, or |
 | device | device | joystick, used to move a pointer on the |
 | | | screen. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | point | point | A selection technique in which a user |
 | selection | selection | selects or deselects an item by clicking |
 | | | the selection button on a mouse while the |
 | | | pointer is positioned over an object or |
 | | | choice. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | pop-up | pop-up menu | A menu that, when requested, appears next |
 | menu | | to the object it is associated with. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | primary | | See window. |
 | window | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Print | Print | A choice that prepares and schedules an |
 | | | object to be printed on a designated |
 | | | printer. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Product | Product | A choice that displays a window that |
 | information| information | contains information about an application |
 | | | or product, such as its copyright notice, |
 | | | a logo, or both. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | progress | progress | Visual user-interface components that |
 | indicator | indicator | inform a user about the status of a |
 | | | computer process. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | pull-down | | See menu. |
 | menu | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | push | push button | A button, labeled with text, graphics, or |
 | button | | both, that represents an action that will |
 | | | be initiated when a user selects it. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | radio | radio button | A circle with text beside it. Radio |
 | button | | buttons are combined to show a user a |
 | | | fixed set of choices from which the user |
 | | | can select one. The circle becomes |
 | | | partially filled when a choice is |
 | | | selected. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | random-poin| | A selection technique in which a user |
 | selection | | presses a mouse button and holds it down |
 | | | while moving the pointer so that the |
 | | | pointer travels to a different location on |
 | | | the screen. Everything the pointer |
 | | | touches while the button is held down is |
 | | | selected. Random-point selection ends |
 | | | when the mouse button is released. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | range | | A technique in which a user selects |
 | selection | | multiple objects in a range by identifying |
 | | | a beginning and end corner. When the |
 | | | second corner is identified, all objects |
 | | | within the specified range are selected. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | range-swipe| | A selection technique in which a user |
 | selection | | moves a pointer across a range of objects. |
 | | | Each object becomes selected as the |
 | | | pointer touches it. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Redo | Redo | A choice that reverses the effect of the |
 | | | most recently performed undo operation on |
 | | | an object, returning the object to the |
 | | | state it was in before the undo operation |
 | | | was performed. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | reflection | | An object that is represented by more than |
 | | | one icon. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Refresh | Refresh | A cascading choice that gives a user |
 | | | access to other choices (On and Off) that |
 | | | control whether changes made to underlying |
 | | | data in a window are displayed |
 | | | immediately, not displayed at all, or |
 | | | displayed at a later time. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Refresh | Refresh now | A choice that shows changes made to |
 | now | | underlying data in a window immediately. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Reset | Reset | A push button that returns an object to |
 | | | the condition it was in when it was last |
 | | | opened, or to the condition it was in |
 | | | before the most recent changes were |
 | | | applied to it. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Restore | Restore | A choice that returns a window to the size |
 | | | it was and the position it was in before |
 | | | the user minimized or maximized the |
 | | | window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | restore | restore | A button that appears in the rightmost |
 | button | button | corner of the title bar after a window has |
 | | | been maximized. When the restore button |
 | | | is selected, the window returns to the |
 | | | size it was before it was maximized. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Retry | Retry | A push button that, when selected, |
 | | | attempts to complete an interrupted |
 | | | process. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Save | Save | A choice that stores an object onto a |
 | | | storage device, such as a disk or |
 | | | diskette. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Save as | Save as | A choice that creates a new object from an |
 | | | existing object and leaves the existing |
 | | | object as it was. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | screen | screen | The physical surface of a display device |
 | | | upon which information is shown to users. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | scrollable | | An entry field that can be scrolled. |
 | entry | | |
 | field | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | scroll bar | scroll bar | A window component that shows a user that |
 | | | more information is available in a |
 | | | particular direction and can be scrolled |
 | | | into view. Scroll bars can be either |
 | | | horizontal or vertical. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | scroll box | scroll box | The part of a scroll bar that indicates |
 | | | the position of the visible information |
 | | | relative to the total amount of |
 | | | information available in a window. A user |
 | | | clicks on a scroll box with a pointing |
 | | | device and manipulates it to see |
 | | | information that is not currently visible. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | scrolling | | A fixed amount of information that can be |
 | increment | | scrolled with a single scrolling action. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | secondary | | See window. |
 | window | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | select | select | To explicitly identify one or more objects |
 | | | to which a subsequent choice will apply. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Select all | Select all | A choice that causes all of the objects in |
 | | | a window to be selected. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Selected | Selected | A choice in the menu bar that provides |
 | | | access to choices that apply to the |
 | | | selected objects in the current view. |
 | | | Products can change the name of the choice |
 | | | to match the types of objects that appear |
 | | | in the current view, for example if a view |
 | | | contains only document objects, a product |
 | | | might name this choice Documents. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | selected-st|te | See emphasis. |
 | emphasis | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | selection | selection | The process of explicitly identifying one |
 | | | or more objects to which a subsequent |
 | | | choice will apply. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | selection | selection | The button on a pointing device that a |
 | button | button | user presses to select an object, for |
 | | | example mouse button 1 is the select |
 | | | button on a two-button mouse. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | selection | selection | A keyboard cursor, in the shape of a |
 | cursor | cursor | dotted outline box, that moves as users |
 | | | indicate the choice they want to interact |
 | | | with. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Settings | Settings | A choice that sets characteristics of |
 | | | objects or displays identifying |
 | | | characteristics of objects. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | shortcut | shortcut key | A key or combination of keys assigned to a |
 | key | | menu choice that initiates that choice, |
 | | | even if the associated menu is not |
 | | | currently displayed. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Short | Short menus | A choice that reduces the number of |
 | menus | | choices that appear in menus. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | single-line| | See entry field. |
 | entry | | |
 | field | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Size | Size | An action choice that allows a user to |
 | | | change the size of a window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | slider | slider | A visual component of a user interface |
 | | | that represents a quantity and its |
 | | | relationship to the range of possible |
 | | | values for that quantity. A user can also |
 | | | change the value of the quantity. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | slider arm | slider arm | The visual indicator in the slider that a |
 | | | user can move to change the numerical |
 | | | value. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | slider | slider | A button on a slider that a user clicks on |
 | button | button | to move the slider arm one increment in a |
 | | | particular direction, as indicated by the |
 | | | directional arrow on the button. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | slider | | The part of the slider on which the slider |
 | shaft | | arm moves. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Sort | Sort | A choice that arranges the objects in a |
 | | | view into a specified order. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | source | | See emphasis. |
 | emphasis | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | spin | spin button | A component used to display, in sequence, |
 | button | | a ring of related but mutually exclusive |
 | | | choices. A user can accept the value |
 | | | displayed in the entry field or can type a |
 | | | valid choice into the entry field. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | split box | split box | A box in the scroll bar of a window that a |
 | | | user can interact with to split a window |
 | | | into separate panes. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Split | Split | A choice that divides a window into more |
 | | | than one pane. Also, a choice used to |
 | | | change the size of each pane. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | status | status area | A part of a window where information |
 | area | | appears that shows the state of an object |
 | | | or the state of a particular view of an |
 | | | object. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | system | system menu | A menu that appears from the system menu |
 | menu | | symbol in the leftmost part of a title |
 | | | bar. It contains choices that affect the |
 | | | window or the view it contains. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | system-menu| system-menu | A symbol (shaped like a Spacebar) in the |
 | symbol | symbol | leftmost corner of a title bar that gives |
 | | | a user access to choices that affect the |
 | | | window or the view it contains. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | tabbed | tabbed | A graphical representation of a tabbed |
 | divider-pag| divider-page | page in a notebook. Tabbed divider-pages |
 | | | separate sections of the notebook. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | table | table | An object, such as a spreadsheet, that is |
 | | | organized in a grid of rows and columns. |
 | | | Each intersection is called a cell and can |
 | | | contain objects, such as text or graphics, |
 | | | or both. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | target | | See emphasis. |
 | emphasis | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | text | text cursor | A symbol displayed in text that shows a |
 | cursor | | user where typed input will appear. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | title bar | title bar | The area at the top of each window that |
 | | | contains the system menu symbol, a small |
 | | | icon, a window title, and the maximize, |
 | | | minimize, and restore buttons. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | tool | tool palette | A palette whose choices represent tools. |
 | palette | | When a user selects a choice from the tool |
 | | | palette and moves the pointer into the |
 | | | window, the pointer changes to the shape |
 | | | of the selected choice and the pointing |
 | | | device performs the operation indicated by |
 | | | the pointer. For example, a user might |
 | | | select a "pencil" choice from the tool |
 | | | palette to make a drawing in the window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Tutorial | Tutorial | A choice that gives a user access to |
 | | | online educational information. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | unavailable|state | See emphasis. |
 | emphasis | | |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Undo | Undo | A choice that reverses the effect of the |
 | | | most recently performed operation on an |
 | | | object, returning the object to the state |
 | | | it was in before the operation was |
 | | | performed. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Using help | Using help | A choice on the Help menu that gives a |
 | | | user information about how the help |
 | | | function works. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | value set | | A set of mutually exclusive, graphical or |
 | | | textual choices. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | View | View | A choice on a menu bar that provides |
 | | | access to other choices that enable a user |
 | | | to choose how an object is presented, how |
 | | | much information is presented, what order |
 | | | it is presented in, and other choices |
 | | | related to the way an object is presented. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | visible | | Describe the visual cue and tell the user |
 | cue | | what it indicates. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | wait | | A pointer that indicates that the computer |
 | pointer | | is performing a process and that the user |
 | | | cannot interact with the part of the |
 | | | underlying window that the wait pointer is |
 | | | positioned over. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | window | window | An area with visible boundaries that |
 | | | presents a view of an object or with which |
 | | | a user conducts a dialog with a computer |
 | | | system. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Windows | Windows | A choice on a menu bar that provides |
 | | | access to other choices with which users |
 | | | can manage all of the open windows on |
 | | | their system that are associated with the |
 | | | product. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | Window | Window list | A choice that presents a list of all of |
 | list | | the open windows associated with the |
 | | | window from which the Window list choice |
 | | | was selected. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | window | window title | The area on a title bar that contains a |
 | title | | short description of the contents of the |
 | | | window. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | work area | work area | A container used to group windows and |
 | | | objects to perform a task. Users can |
 | | | modify sample work areas to suit their own |
 | | | needs. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|
 | workplace | workplace | A container that fills the entire screen |
 | | | and holds all of the objects that make up |
 | | | the user interface. |
 |____________|______________|____________________________________________|

BACK_1 Glossary


This glossary is intended to be used by the reader of this book as a
reference to the terminology contained herein. For CUA terms and
definitions that can be used in product glossaries, refer to the CUA
Reference.


 action choice. A choice that immediately begins to process a request made
by a user or immediately applies settings to an object.


 application. A collection of related components with which a user
performs a task.


 audible cue. A sound generated by the computer to draw a user's attention
to, or provide feedback about, an event or state of the computer. Audible
cues enhance and reinforce visible cues.


 automatic selection. A selection technique in which moving the keyboard
cursor automatically changes the current selection. Automatic selection
is provided as a convenience so that a user does not have to select an
object explicitly.


 border. A visual indication of the boundaries of a window.


 button. (1) A mechanism on a pointing device, such as a mouse, used to
request or initiate an action or a process. (2) A graphical device that
identifies a choice. (3) A graphical mechanism that, when selected,
performs a visible action. For example, when a user clicks on a list
button, a list of choices appears.


 cascaded menu. A menu that appears from, and contains choices related to,
a cascading choice in another menu. Cascaded menus are used to reduce the
length of a pull-down menu or a pop-up menu.


 cascading choice. A choice on a menu that leads to a cascaded menu
containing related choices. A cascading choice is indicated by a
rightward-pointing arrow (ÿ) to the right of the choice.


 check box. A square box with associated text that represents a choice.
When a user selects the choice, an "X" appears in the check box to
indicate that the choice is selected. The user can clear the check box by
selecting the choice again, thereby canceling the selection.


 check mark. A character (&check.) that indicates that a settings choice
is active.


 choice. Text or graphics that a user can select. Examples of choices
are: push buttons, radio buttons, and menu items. There are three kinds
of choices: action, routing, and settings. Choices appear in menus, on
push buttons, and in fields, for example a field of radio buttons.


 chord. To press more than one button on a pointing device while the
pointer is within the limits that the user has specified for the operating
environment.


 class. See object class.


 class hierarchy. A collection of object classes organized to indicate the
other classes from which they have inherited various attributes.


 click. To press and release a button on a pointing device without moving
the pointer off of the object or choice.


 clipboard. An area of storage provided by the system to hold data
temporarily.


 combination box. A control that combines the functions of an entry field
and a list box. A combination box contains a list of objects that a user
can scroll through and select from to complete the entry field.
Alternatively, a user can type text directly into the entry field.


 composite object. An object that contains other objects, usually of a
different type. For example, a document object that contains not only
text, but graphics or image objects that may each be separate objects.


 composed view. A view of an object in which relationships of the parts
contribute to the overall meaning. Composed views are provided primarily
for data objects.


 container object. An object whose specific purpose is to hold other
objects. A folder is an example of a container object.


 containment. The principle that objects hold other objects and can be
held by other objects.


 contents view. A view of an object that shows the contents of the object
in list form. Contents views are provided for container objects and for
any object that has container behavior, for example, a device object such
as a printer. The two types of contents views are the icons view and the
details view.


 controls. Visual user-interface components that allow a user to interact
with data. Controls are usually identified by text, for example,
headings, labels in push buttons, field prompts, and titles in windows.


 current-setting indicator. A visible indication that a choice is active
or inactive, for example the "X" that appears in a check box when it is
selected.


 cursor. A visible indication of the position where user interaction with
the keyboard will appear. The keyboard cursor can be either the selection
cursor or the text cursor.


 data object. An object whose primary purpose is to convey information,
such as text, graphics, audio, or video. A newsletter is an example of a
data object.


 deselection. The process of removing selection from a previously selected
object.


 details view. A standard contents view in which a small icon is combined
with text to provide descriptive information about an object. The text is
arranged in rows and columns so that there is one row for each object and
one column for each type of descriptive information displayed.


 device object. An object that provides a means for communication between
a computer and another piece of equipment. A printer and an electronic
mail out-basket are examples of device objects.


 dialog. The interaction between a user and a computer.


 direct manipulation. A set of techniques that allow a user to work with
an object by dragging it with a pointing device or interacting with its
pop-up menu.


 double-click. To press and release a button on a pointing device twice
while a pointer is within the limits that the user has specified for the
operating environment.


 drag. To use a pointing device to move or copy an object. For example, a
user can drag a window border to make it larger. To drag something, a
user presses and holds a button on the pointing device while moving the
pointing device.


 drag and drop. To directly manipulate an object by moving it and placing
it somewhere else using a pointing device.


 drop-down combination box. A combination box in which the list is hidden
until a user takes an action to make it visible.


 drop-down list. A control that is a variation of a list box. A drop-down
list only displays one item until the user takes an action to display the
other objects or choices.


 emphasis. Highlighting, color change, or other visible indication of the
condition of an object or choice and the effect of that condition on a
user's ability to interact with that object or choice. Emphasis can also
give a user additional information about the state of an object or choice.


 entry field. A control into which a user places text. Its boundaries
are usually indicated. Entry fields can scroll if more information is
available than is currently visible.


 exception. An event or situation that prevents, or could prevent, an
action requested by a user from being completed in a manner that the user
would expect. Exceptions occur when a product is unable to interpret a
user's input.


 explicit selection. A type of selection in which users expressly identify
the item or items that they want to select.


 extended selection. A type of selection optimized for the selection of a
single object. A user can extend selection to more than one object, if
required.


 field. An identifiable area in a window, for example an entry field into
which a user can type text, or a field of radio buttons from which a user
can select one choice in the field.


 field prompt. Text that identifies a field, such as an entry field or a
field of check boxes.


 folder. A container used to organize objects.


 graphical user interface. A type of user interface that takes advantage
of high-resolution graphics. In common usage, a graphical user interface
includes a combination of graphics, the object-action paradigm, the use of
pointing devices, menu bars and other menus, overlapping windows, and
icons.


 group heading. A heading that identifies a set of related fields.


 help view. A view of an object that provides information to assist users
in working with that object.


 hide button. A button on a title bar that a user clicks on to remove a
window from the workplace without closing the window. When the window is
hidden, the state of window, as represented in the window list, changes.


 I-beam pointer. A pointer, shaped like a steel girder, that indicates
that the pointer is over an area where text can be typed.


 icon. A graphical representation of an object, consisting of an image,
image background, and a label.


 icons view. A standard contents view in which each object contained in a
container object is displayed as an icon.


 implicit selection. A type of selection in which a user does not
expressly select the item on which an action will be taken, but still has
access to the actions available for the item.


 inactive window. A window that cannot receive keyboard input at a given
moment.


 information area. A specific part of a window in which information about
the object or choice that the cursor is on is displayed. The information
area can also contain a message about the completion of a process.


 inheritance. The principle that objects acquire attributes from other
classes of objects.


 keys help. A type of help information that lists all the key assignments
for an object or a product.


 list box. A control that contains a list of objects or settings choices
that a user can select.


 manipulation button. The button on a pointing device a user presses to
directly manipulate an object. For example mouse button 2 is the default
manipulation button on a two-button mouse.


 maximize button. A button on the rightmost part of a title bar that a
user clicks on to enlarge the window to its largest possible size.


 menu. A list of choices that can be applied to an object. A menu can
contain choices that are not available for selection in certain contexts.
Those choices are indicated by reduced contrast.


 menu bar. The area near the top of a window, below the title bar and
above the rest of the window, that contains routing choices that provide
access to pull-down menus.


 menu-bar choice. A graphical or textual item on a menu bar that provides
access to pull-down menus which contain choices that can be applied to an
object.


 menu choice. A graphical or textual item on a menu. A user selects a
menu choice to work with an object in some way.


 message. Information not requested by a user but displayed by a product
or application in response to an unexpected event, or when something
undesirable could occur.


 metaphor. A word, phrase, or visual representation that denotes or
depicts one object or idea but suggests a likeness or analogy with another
object or idea.


 minimize button. A button, located next to the rightmost button in a
title bar, that reduces the window to its smallest possible size and
removes all the windows associated with that window from the screen.


 mode. A method of operation in which the actions that are available to a
user are determined by the state of the system.


 model. The conceptual and operational understanding that a person has
about something.


 mouse. A commonly used pointing device that has one or more buttons that
a user presses to interact with a computer system.


 mouse button. A mechanism on a mouse pointing device used to select
choices, initiate actions, or manipulate objects with the pointer. The
button makes a "clicking" sound when pressed and released.


 multiple selection. A selection technique in which a user can select any
number of objects, or not select any.


 notebook. A graphical representation that resembles a bound notebook that
contains pages separated into sections by tabbed divider pages. A user
can turn the pages of a notebook to move from one section to another.


 object. A visual component of a user interface that a user can work with
to perform a task. An object can appear as text or an icon.


 object-action paradigm. A pattern for interaction in which a user selects
an object and then selects an action to apply to that object.


 object class. A categorization or grouping of objects that share similar
behaviors and characteristics.


 object decomposition. The process of breaking an object into its
component parts.


 object hierarchy. A way of illustrating relationships among objects.
Each object that appears in a level below another object is an example of
the upper object.


 object inheritance. See inheritance.


 object orientation. An orientation in a user interface in which a user's
attention is directed toward the objects the user works with to perform a
task.


 object-oriented programming. A type of programming in which code is
divided into modules called "objects" that communicate with each other by
passing messages.


 object-oriented user interface. A type of user interface that implements
the object-action paradigm.


 object subclass. An object created from another object and from which the
properties of the original object are inherited.


 object superclass. The object from which subclass objects are created.
The properties of the superclass object are inherited by the subclass
object.


 one-based selection. A scope of selection in which one item within the
scope must always be selected.


 pane. One of the separate areas in a split window.


 paradigm. An example, pattern, or model.


 pointer. A visible cue, usually in the shape of an arrow, that a user can
move with a pointing device. Users place the pointer over objects they
want to work with.


 pointing device. A device, such as a mouse, trackball, or joystick, used
to move a pointer on the screen.


 pop-up menu. A menu that, when requested, is displayed next to the object
it is associated with. It contains choices appropriate for a given object
or set of objects in their current context.


 primary window. A window in which the main interaction between a user and
an object takes place.


 progress indicator. One or more controls used to inform a user about the
progress of a process.


 properties. The particular characteristics and attributes of an object.


 pull-down menu. A menu that extends from a selected choice on a menu bar
or from the system-menu symbol. The choices in a pull-down menu are
related to one another in some manner.


 push button. A button, labeled with text, graphics, or both, that
represents an action that will be initiated when a user selects it.


 radio button. A circle with text beside it. Radio buttons are combined
to show a user a fixed set of choices from which the user can select one.
The circle becomes partially filled when a choice is selected.


 read-only field. A variation of an entry field into which a user cannot
type or otherwise place text to replace the existing information. The
information displayed in a read-only field can be static or can be
automatically calculated by the product containing the read-only field.


 reflection. An object that is represented by more than one icon. If a
user changes an object that is a reflection, all other reflections of the
object are changed. If a user deletes a reflection, other reflections of
the object are not necessarily deleted.


 routing choice. A choice that displays a pull-down menu, a cascaded menu,
or a window containing additional choices.


 scope of selection. Any area in which the selection of one item can
affect the selection of another item.


 screen. The physical surface of a display device upon which information
is shown to users.


 scroll bar. A window component that shows a user that more information is
available in a particular direction and can be scrolled into view. Scroll
bars can be either horizontal or vertical.


 scroll box. The part of a scroll bar that indicates the position of the
visible information relative to the total amount of information available
in a window. A user clicks on a scroll box with a pointing device and
manipulates it to see information that is not currently visible.


 secondary window. A window that contains information that is dependent on
information in a primary window and is used to supplement the interaction
in the primary window.


 selection. The act of explicitly identifying one or more objects to which
a subsequent choice will apply.


 selection button. The button on a pointing device that a user presses to
select an object. For example, mouse button 1 is the default selection
button on a two-button mouse.


 selection cursor. A keyboard cursor, in the shape of a dotted outline
box, that moves as users indicate the choice they want to interact with.


 selection technique. The method by which users indicate items on the
interface that they want to work with.


 settings choice. A type of choice that sets characteristics of objects or
displays identifying characteristics of objects.


 settings view. A view of an object that provides a way to display the
parameters and options associated with the object.


 single selection. A selection technique in which a user selects one, and
only one, item at a time.


 shortcut key. A key or combination of keys assigned to a menu choice that
initiates that choice, even if the associated menu is not currently
displayed.


 slider. A visual component of a user interface that represents a quantity
and its relationship to the range of possible values for that quantity. A
user can also change the value of the quantity.


 slider arm. The visual indicator in the slider that a user can move to
change the numerical value.


 slider button. A button on a slider that a user clicks on to move the
slider arm one increment in a particular direction, as indicated by the
directional arrow on the button.


 Sort. A choice that arranges the objects in a view into a specified
order.


 source object. An object that is the source of a direct-manipulation
operation; for example, if a user drags a document to a printer to print
it, the document is the source object.


 spin button. A control used to display, in sequence, a ring of related
but mutually exclusive choices. It contains a field that can accept user
input, which allows a user to make a selection by typing a valid choice,
or a field that can display a value that the user can merely accept. The
user can change the value by spinning through the ring of choices.


 split box. A box in the scroll bar of a window that a user can interact
with to split a window into separate panes.


 status area. A part of a window where information appears that shows the
state of an object or the state of a particular view of an object.


 system menu. A menu that appears from the system-menu symbol in the
leftmost part of a title bar. It contains choices that affect the window.


 system-menu symbol. A symbol (shaped like a Spacebar) in the leftmost
corner of a title bar that gives a user access to choices that affect the
window or the view it contains.


 tabbed divider page. A graphical representation of a tabbed page in a
notebook. Tabbed divider pages separate sections of the notebook.


 target object. The object that is the target of a direct-manipulation
operation; for example, if a user drags a document to a printer to print
it, the printer is the target object.


 text cursor. A keyboard cursor used in text that shows a user where typed
input will appear.


 title bar. The area at the top of each window that contains the system
menu symbol from which the system menu appears, a small icon, a window
title, and the window sizing buttons.


 tool palette. A palette containing choices that represent tools. When a
user selects a choice from the tool palette and moves the pointer into the
window, the pointer changes to the shape of the selected choice and the
pointing device performs the operation indicated by the pointer. For
example, a user might select a "pencil" choice from the tool palette to
draw a line in the window.


 touch input. An input technique in which the pointing device is a user's
finger.


 touch pointer. A kind of pointer that can be provided for touch-input
environments. A touch pointer indicates to a user which items will be
affected by the user's input.


 user interface. The area at which a user and an object come together to
interact. As applied to computers, the ensemble of hardware and software
that allows a user to interact with a computer.


 user's conceptual model. The concepts and expectations a person develops
through experience.


 value set. A control that allows a user to select one choice from a group
of mutually exclusive choices. A value set is used primarily for
graphical choices.


 view. The form in which an object is presented. There are four basic
types of views: composed, contents, settings, and help.


 window. An area with visible boundaries that presents a view of an object
or with which a user conducts a dialog with a computer system.


 window title. The area on a title bar that contains the name of the
object or a short description of the contents of the window.


 work area. A container used to organize objects according to a user's
tasks. When a user closes a work area, all windows opened from objects
contained in the work area are removed from the workplace.


 workplace. A container that fills the entire screen and holds all of the
objects that make up the user interface.


 zero-based selection. A selection technique that does not require that
any items within the scope of selection be selected.

BACK_2 Recommended Readings


This bibliography lists selected publications that provide technical
information on key principles, examples of user-centered design, and
behaviorally oriented discussions of user interface technology and
techniques. The first set of references will help you get started with
user interface design. The second set, organized by topics, provides more
in-depth technical coverage for specialists or those who want to learn
more.




Subtopics:

BACK_2.1 Getting Started




Baecker, R. and Buxton, W. (Eds.) Readings in human-computer
interaction: A multi-disciplinary approach. Los Altos, CA: Morgan
 Kaufmann Publishers, Inc., 1987.
 (This is a good source for learning how to become a part of the
 growing, interdisciplinary community of people interested in
 human-computer interaction. The appendixes describe key books,
 journals, and conferences. The body of the collection consists of
 reprints of key papers covering pre-1980s through 1986, including
 papers on input devices and output devices, user-centered design, and
 socio-technical perspectives.)


Heckel, P. The elements of friendly software design. New York:
 Warner Books, 1984.
 (Discussion of general principles and guidelines.)


Kelly, George. "Man as scientist--Developing models." A theory of
personality. New York: Wm. Norton & Co., Inc., 1963.


Norman, D. The psychology of everyday things. Hillsdale, NJ: L.
 Erlbaum, 1988.
 (Very good, useful discussion of cognitive psychology in the context
 of understanding human-artifact interaction at large.)


Rubenstein, R. and Hersch, H. The human factor: Designing computer
systems for people. Massachusetts: Digital Press, 1984.
 (Highly recommended, very readable discussion of user-centered design
 in its full scope: task analysis, prototyping, empirical evaluating,
 interface techniques, and guidelines.)


Shneiderman, B. Designing the user interface. Massachusetts:
 Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1987.


Tufte, Edward R. Envisioning information. Connecticut: Graphics
 Press, 1990.


Tufte, Edward R. The visual display of quantitative information.
Connecticut: Graphics Press, 1983.

BACK_2.2 User Interface Technology and Techniques




The references cited in the "Getting Started" section survey many user
interface technologies and techniques. The references in this section
cover key technologies and techniques in more depth.


Carroll, J., Smith-Kerker, P., Ford, J., and Mazur, S. "The minimal
manual." Human-computer interaction. 3(2), 1987-1988. 123-154.


Doheny-Farina, S. (Ed.) Effective documentation: What we have learned
from research. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1988.


Foley, J. D., Wallace, V. L., and Chan, P. "The human factors of
computer graphics interaction techniques." IEEE computer graphics and
applications, November 1984: 13-48.


Helander, M. (Ed.) Handbook of human-computer interaction.
North-Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1988.
(Very comprehensive and useful collection covering nearly all major
areas of human-computer interaction, including many chapters on
specific user interface technology and techniques, aspects of task
analysis, organizational impact of computer technology, software
engineering tools, cognitive psychology, user-centered design and
evaluation methods. The following list summarizes some chapters
dealing with interface techniques:


Billingsley, P. "Taking panes: Issues in the design of windowing
systems." (Chapter 19)
Elkerton, J. "On-line aiding for human-computer interfaces."
(Chapter 16)
Greenstein, J. and Arnaut, L. "Input devices." (Chapter 22)
Ogden, W. "Using natural language interfaces." (Chapter 13)
Smith, S. "Standards versus guidelines for designing user
interface software." (Chapter 40)
Tullis, T. "Screen design." (Chapter 18)
Verplank. W. "Graphic challenges in designing object-oriented
user interfaces." (Chapter 17)
Wright, P. "Issues of content and presentation in document
design." (Chapter 28)
Ziegler, J. and Fahnrich, K. "Direct manipulation." (Chapter 6))


Hutchins, E. L., Hollan, J. D., and Norman, D. A. "Direct
manipulation interfaces." In User-centered system design: New
perspectives on human-computer interaction. Ed. D. A. Norman and S. W.
 Draper. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986. 87-124.


International Business Machines Corporation. Icon reference book.
SC34-4348-00.


Smith, D., Irby, C., Kimball, R., and Verplank, W. "Designing the
Star user interface." Byte. 7(4), April 1983. 242-282.


Thorell, L. G. and Smith, W. J. Using computer color effectively: An
illustrated reference. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990.




Subtopics:

BACK_2.2.1 User-Centered Design: General Principles




The following references provide an overview of key principles of
user-centered design and usability engineering.


Gould, J. and Lewis, C. "Designing for usability: Key principles and
what designers think." Communications of the ACM. 28(3), March 1985.
 300-311.


Helander, M. (Ed.) Handbook of human-computer interaction.
North-Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1988.
(Cited earlier; in this context see especially:


Gould, J. "How to design usable systems." (Chapter 35)
Whiteside, J., Bennett, J., and Holtzblatt, K. "Usability
engineering: Our experience and evolution." (Chapter 36))


Rubenstein, R. and Hersch, H. The human factor: Designing computer
systems for people. Massachusetts: Digital Press, 1984.
 (Cited earlier; in this context see especially chapters 2, 3, 4, and
 11)

BACK_2.2.2 User-Centered Design: Case Studies




A sampling of case studies in user-centered design, discussed in more
depth.


Good, M., Whiteside, J., Wixon, D., and Jones, S. "Building a
user-derived interface." Communications of the ACM. 27(10), October
 1984. 1032-1043.


Gould, J., Boies, S., Levy, S., Richards, J., and Schoonard, J. "The
1984 Olympic message system: A test of the behavioral principles of
system design." Communications of the ACM. 30(9), September 1987.
 758-769.


Percival, L. and Johnson, S. "Network management software usability
test design and implementation." IBM systems journal. 25(1), 1986.

BACK_2.2.3 Understanding Users and Their Tasks




The following highly selective group of publications discusses users and
task analysis at many levels, from computer interaction tasks to broad
analyses of organizational change resulting from the introduction of
technology. See also the discussions in references cited in
"User-Centered Design: General Principles" in topic BACK_2.2.1, such as
 Helander or Rubenstein and Hersh.


Blackler, F. and Oborne, D. (Eds.) Information technology and people:
Designing for the future. Leicester, UK: The British Psychological
 Society, 1987.
 (This collection is wide-ranging, but it can point you to a large
 volume of literature outside the USA on task and work analysis.)


Brady, L. "User system analysis." In Human factors in organizational
design and management. Eds. H. Hendrick and O. Brown. North-Holland:
 Elsevier Science Publishers, Inc., 1984.
 (An example of a paper in a collection of short papers from a
 conference on the analysis of work and information technology.)


Bullen, C., Bennett, J., and Carlson, E. "A case study of office
workstation use." IBM systems journal. 21(3), 1982.


Carroll, J., Mack, R., and Kellogg, W. "Interface metaphors and user
interface design." In Handbook of human-computer interaction. Ed. M.
 Helander. Chapter 3, 67-86.


Carroll, J. and Reitman Olson, J. "Mental models in human-computer
interaction." In Handbook of human-computer interaction. Ed. M.
 Helander. Chapter 2, 45-61.


Carroll, J. and Rosson, M. B. "Usability specifications as a tool in
iterative development." In Advances in human-computer interaction.
Ed. H. Hartson. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, 1985.
(Task analysis from the perspective of setting product objectives that
can be tested.)


Carroll, J. and Rosson, M. B. "The paradox of the active user." In
Interfacing thought: Cognitive aspects of human-computer interaction.
Ed. J. Carroll. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.


Egan, D. "Individual differences in human-computer interaction." In
Handbook of human-computer interaction. Ed. M. Helander
 North-Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1988. 543-568.


Gould, J., Boies, S., Levy, S., Richards, J., and Schoonard, J. "The
1984 Olympic message system: A test of the behavioral principles of
system design." Communications of the ACM. 30(9), September 1987.
 758-769.
 (Cited above; relevant here for discussion of initial field work to
 understand users and their requirements.)


Lewis, C. and Norman, D. "Designing for error." In User centered
system design: New perspectives on human-computer interaction. Eds. D.
 Norman and S. Draper. 411-432.


Norman, D. "Cognitive engineering." In User centered system design:
New perspectives on human-computer interaction. Eds. D. Norman and S.
 Draper. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1986. 31-61.


Percival, L. and Johnson, S. "Network management software usability
test design and implementation." IBM systems journal. 25(1), 1986.
 (Cited above; relevant here for references to initial field work to
 understand users and their requirements.)


Potosnak, K. (Panel chair), Hayes, P., Rosson, M. B., Schneider, M.,
and Whiteside, J. "Classifying users: A hard look at some
controversial issues." Proceedings CHI '86 human factors in computing
systems. (Boston, April 13-17, 1986), ACM, New York. 84-88.
 (Brief panel discussion of issues; reference section useful.)


Regan, E. and O'Conner, B. Automating the office: Office systems and
end-user computing. Chicago, IL: Science Research Associates, Inc.,
 1989.
 (Textbook treatment, with focus on office automation; see especially
 chapters 17-22 on developing requirements, evaluating technology in
 the field.)


Reitman Olson, J. "Cognitive analysis of people's use of software."
In Interfacing thought: Cognitive aspects of human-computer
interaction. Ed. J. Carroll. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.
 (Theoretical discussion of similarities and differences between
 analysis schemes for low-level computer-implemented tasks, and schemes
 for broader analysis of tasks in the workplace. References to
 academic literature on task and work analysis.)


Rockart, J. and Bullen, C. (Eds.) The rise of managerial computing:
The best of the Center for Information Systems Research. Homewood, IL:
 Dow Jones-Irwin, 1986.
 (Wide-ranging collection of papers on decision support tasks, users
 and requirements, including executive support. Lots of pointers into
 academic literature.)


The following publications provide comprehensive, technical overviews of
psychological principles of human-computer and human-machine interaction,
from traditional human performance perspectives to more cognitive
interpretations.


Bailey, R. W. Human performance engineering: A guide for system
designers. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1982.


Boff, K., Kaufman, L., and Thomas, J. Handbook of perception and
human-performance. Vol. 1, 2 New York: Wiley Publications, 1986.


Card, S. K., Moran, T. P., and Newell, A. The psychology of
human-computer interaction. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
 1983.


Carroll, J. (Ed.) Interfacing thought: Cognitive aspects of
human-computer interaction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.


Kantowitz, B. H. and Sorkin, R. D. Human factors: Understanding
people-system relationships. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1983.


Nickerson, R.S. Using computers: Human factors in information
systems. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.


Norman, D. and Draper, S. (Eds.) User centered system design: New
perspectives on human-computer interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum
 Associates, 1986.

BACK_2.3 Object-Oriented Programming and Design




Coad, Peter and Yourdan, Edward. Object-oriented analysis. West
 Nyack, NY: Prentice Hall, 1991.


Coad, Peter and Yourdan, Edward. Object-oriented design. West Nyack,
 NY: Prentice Hall, 1991.


Cox, Brad J. Object-oriented programming: An evolutionary approach.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1987.

BACK_2.4 National Language Support




You can find the IBM rules and guidelines for supporting translation in
the following books:


Designing enabled products, rules and guidelines, SE09-8001


National language support reference manual, SE09-8002.

INDEX Index

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Notices

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Acknowledgments

Foreword

About This Book

How This Book is Organized

Who Should Read This Book

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Related Publications

Please Tell Us What You Think!

1.1.1 What Is the Common User Access User Interface?

1.1.4.1.1 Container Objects

1.1.4.1.2 Data Objects

1.1.4.1.3 Device Objects

1.1.4.2 Object Hierarchies and Inheritance

1.1.5 The Distinctions between Object-Oriented User Interfaces and Object-Oriented Programming

1.1.6 Benefits of an Object-Oriented User Interface

1.2 Chapter 2. Models of a User Interface

1.2.1 A User's Conceptual Model

1.2.3.1 Object Relationships

1.2.3.2 Visual Representations

1.2.3.3 Interaction Techniques and Mechanisms

1.2.5 Accommodating the Programmer's Model in the Designer's Model

1.3.1 Design Principles That Place a User in Control

1.3.1.2 Displaying Descriptive and Helpful Messages

1.3.1.3 Providing Immediate Actions, Feedback, and Reversible Actions

1.3.1.4 Accommodating Users with Different Levels of Skill

1.3.1.5 Making the User Interface Transparent

1.3.1.6 Allowing a User to Customize the User Interface

1.3.2 Design Principles That Reduce a User's Memory Load

1.3.2.1 Defining Meaningful and Concise Object Classes

1.3.2.2 Making Objects Concrete and Recognizable

1.3.3 Design Principles That Contribute to Consistency

1.3.3.1 Sustaining the Context of a User's Task

1.3.3.2 Maintaining Continuity within and among Products

1.3.3.3 Creating Aesthetic Appeal

1.3.3.4 Using Visual Metaphors

1.4 Chapter 4. Key Components of the CUA User Interface

1.4.1 Workplace

1.4.4 Pointers and Cursors

1.4.4.2 The Cursor

1.4.4.2.1 Cursor Movement

1.4.4.2.2 Mnemonics

1.4.4.2.3 Shortcut Keys

1.4.5.1.2 Contents Views

1.4.5.1.1 Composed Views

1.4.5.1.3 Settings Views

1.4.5.1.4 Help Views

1.4.5.1.5 Distinguishing a Composed View from a Contents View

1.4.6.3 Choices and Controls

1.4.6.3.1 Choices

1.4.6.4.2 One-Based Selection and Zero-Based Selection

1.4.6.4.5 Design Considerations for Selection

1.4.6.5 Copying and Creating Objects

1.4.6.5.1 The Clipboard

1.4.7 Keeping a User Informed

1.4.7.2 Progress Indicators

1.4.7.3 Information Areas

1.4.7.4 Status Areas

1.4.7.5 Emphasis

1.4.8 Exception Handling

1.4.8.1 Audible Cues

1.4.8.2 Visible Cues

1.4.8.3 Textual Cues

1.4.8.4 Examples of Exceptions and Their Corresponding Notifications

1.5.2 CUA Containment

1.5.3 CUA Visual Representations

1.5.4 CUA Views

1.5.5 CUA Interaction Mechanisms

1.6.1 Overview of the Development Process

1.6.2 Researching and Planning the Product

1.6.2.1 Step 1. Gathering Requirements from Management

1.6.2.2 Step 2. Learning about Users and Their Tasks

1.6.2.3 Step 3. Matching Management's Requirements to the Users' Tasks

1.6.3 Designing the Product

1.6.3.1 Step 1. Defining the Objects